Biological Control of Insect Pests: Southeast Asian Prospects - EcoPort

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Table 4.7.2 (contÕd) Diaphorina citri host plants (after Aubert 1990) Occasional host plants Leaf sucking Egg laying Nymphal development Vepris lanceolata* + Ð Ð Swinglea glutinesa* + unknown unknown Atalantia sp. + unknown unknown Clausena indica* + unknown unknown Murraya exotica* + unknown unknown Citrus species hosts are, according to the classification of Jones (1990): +++ very common; ++ usual + occasional; Ð complete life cycle not observed *observations on caged insects 118 Biological Control of Insect Pests: Southeast Asian Prospects
4.7 Diaphorina citri 119 In Africa, RŽunion, Madagascar and Saudi Arabia another psyllid Trioza erytreae transmits a slightly different citrus greening organism (see later under RŽunion). Citrus greening is believed to have originated in northeastern Guangdong Province (Lin and Lin 1990). Amongst other symptoms, the leaves of new green shoots first turn yellow at their base, then often become mottled yellow and drop. The branches remain small, upright and stiff. Diseased trees flower abundantly in the off-season and flowers drop readily or result in small, irregular fruit whose base turns red before the remainder changes from green (Ke 1987). Citrus greening is widespread throughout South and Southeast Asia, where it is almost always the most serious disease of citrus. It is spread to new areas by infected nursery plants or infected budwood and within orchards by D. citri (Capoor et al. 1967; Whittle 1992). However, D. citri has been intercepted by quarantine in France on citrus imported from Honduras (Burckhardt and Martinez 1989). The tonnage of citrus produced worldwide is second as a fruit crop only to that of grapes (Aubert 1987b). An extremely serious citrus disease which already affects nearly 50 countries in Asia and Africa must, therefore, be regarded as of major importance. It is reported that a total of over a million trees are destroyed each year in China, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and Philippines alone (Aubert 1987a). In Indonesia citrus greening has caused the loss of many millions of trees. Small farmers are frequently reluctant to remove declining trees before they almost cease bearing. This tends to increase D. citri populations, which breed on young flush since a symptom of greening is unseasonal flushing (Whittle 1992). The recent history of production in northern Vietnam, where citrus is grown mainly in larger orchards or state farms, is typically cyclical, with the gradual destruction of trees by greening and then wholesale removal and replanting. A new cycle of planting commenced in the late 1980s, but greening is already to be seen in many young orchards, although populations of D. citri are still low (Whittle 1992). Only by keeping populations at very low levels by biological control and/or insecticides will the rate of spread of greening be diminished. Insecticides are said to be highly cost effective if used only during a restricted flushing period, but if needed frequently they are very costly and environmentally undesirable. Recent developments with carefully specified, highly refined petroleum oils has given high levels of control of D. citri (A. Beattie pers. comm. 1995), with presumably little direct effect on its parasitoids. Whittle (1992) reported that he was unable to find D. citri in the vicinity of Ho Chi Minh City (southern Vietnam), a very unusual situation for an area with a fairly long history of citrus cultivation.
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Biological Control of Insect Pests:
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ii The Australian Centre for Intern
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iv 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 Natural enem
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vi 4.14 4.15 4.16 Phyllocnistis cit
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1 Abstract Introduction 1 Biologica
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3 Introduction Introduction 3 Water
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Figure 1. Introduction 5 integratio
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Introduction 7 necessary those used
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10 Biological Control of Insect Pes
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Table 4.1.1 Natural enemies of Agri
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Table 4.2.1 Average figures (days)
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Table 4.2.2 Natural enemies of Anom
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Table 4.2.2 (contÕd) Natural enemi
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Table 4.2.2 (contÕd) Natural enemi
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Table 3 Order No. of +s 26 1. 41 2.
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4.4 Aphis gossypii India Myanmar ++
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Host plants Damage 4.4 Aphis gossyp
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4.4 Aphis gossypii the abundance of
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Table 4.4.1 (contÕd) HYMENOPTERA A
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Table 4.4.1 (contÕd) HYMENOPTERA A
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Table 4.4.1 (contÕd) Parasitoids o
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Table 4.4.1 (contÕd) Parasitoids o
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4.4 Aphis gossypii 59 Under humid c
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Table 4.4.3 Releases for the biolog
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4.4 Aphis gossypii 63 that the lyco
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IRAQ ISRAEL 4.4 Aphis gossypii 65 d
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Page 77 and 78: Diptera 4.4 Aphis gossypii 79 insta
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Page 155 and 156: 4.10 Hypothenemus hampei India 20°
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Table 4.10.1 (contÕd) Natural enem
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Asia 4.10 Hypothenemus hampei 171 C
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Table 4.10.2 (contÕd) Introduction
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4.10 Hypothenemus hampei 175 relati
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4.10 Hypothenemus hampei 177 to 30%
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4.10 Hypothenemus hampei 179 P. nas
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4.10 Hypothenemus hampei 181 Planta
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4.10 Hypothenemus hampei 183 Asian
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186 Biological Control of Insect Pe
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Table 4.11.1 Development times, and
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Table 4.11.2 Natural enemies of Leu
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4.12 Nezara viridula India Myanmar
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Biology Damage 4.12 Nezara viridula
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4.12 Nezara viridula 201 which cons
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Table 4.12.1 (contÕd) Parasitoids
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4.12 Nezara viridula 209 attracted
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Table 4.12.2 Introductions for the
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4.12 Nezara viridula 217 Doubt has
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4.12 Nezara viridula 219 Africa and
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BRAZIL 4.12 Nezara viridula 221 par
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4.12 Nezara viridula 223 parasitisa
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4.12 Nezara viridula 225 Anastatus
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THAILAND TONGA USA VANUATU 4.12 Nez
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4.12 Nezara viridula 229 Gryon sp.
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4.12 Nezara viridula 231 reproducti
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4.12 Nezara viridula 233 Ectophasio
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4.13 Ophiomyia phaseoli India Myanm
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Biology Host plants 4.13 Ophiomyia
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Natural enemies 4.13 Ophiomyia phas
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EGYPT ETHIOPIA 4.13 Ophiomyia phase
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4.13 Ophiomyia phaseoli 247 Three a
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Attempts at biological control 4.13
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The more important parasitoids 4.13
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4.13 Ophiomyia phaseoli 253 its hos
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Comment 4.13 Ophiomyia phaseoli 255
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The Major Invertebrate Pests and We
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4.15 Planococcus citri India 20° M
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Biology Host plants 4.15 Planococcu
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Table 4.15.1 Predators of Planococc
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Table 4.15.1 (contÕd) Predators of
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Table 4.15.1 (contÕd) Predators of
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Table 4.15.2 Parasitoids of Planoco
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4.15 Planococcus citri 299 The ency
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BRAZIL CHILE CHINA CUBA CYPRUS FRAN
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ISRAEL 4.15 Planococcus citri 303 R
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4.15 Planococcus citri 305 When the
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Table 4.15.4 Introductions for the
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Biology of important natural enemie
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4.15 Planococcus citri 313 Diomus p
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Comments 4.15 Planococcus citri 315
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4.16 Trichoplusia ni India 20° Mya
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Host plants 4.16 Trichoplusia ni 31
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4.16 Trichoplusia ni 321 describing
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Table 4.16.2 (contÕd) Some predato
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Table 4.16.2 (contÕd) Some predato
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4.16 Trichoplusia ni 335 Introducti
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4.16 Trichoplusia ni 337 Table 4.16
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Table 4.16.6 Natural enemies of Tri
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4.16 Trichoplusia ni 341 It was sug
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4.16 Trichoplusia ni 343 13.85 days
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4.16 Trichoplusia ni 345 Voria rura
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4.16 Trichoplusia ni 347 when 2nd o
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5 References 349 Abasa, R.O. 1975.
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References 351 Alfaro, F., Garcia-M
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References 353 Argyriou, L.C. 1970.
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References 355 Ayoub, M.A. 1960. Ph
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References 357 Barrera, J.F., Gomez
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References 359 Beattie, G.A.C. and
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References 361 Berkani, A. 1995. Re
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References 363 Boling, J.C. and Pit
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References 365 Brun, L.O., Marcilla
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References 367 Cantrell, B.K. 1984.
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References 369 Cenda-a, S.M., Gabri
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References 371 Chien, C.C., Chu, Y.
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References 373 CIE 1985. Distributi
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References 375 Compere, H. 1939. Me
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References 377 Crouzel, I.S. and Sa
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References 379 De Oliveira Filho, M
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References 381 Ding, Y., Li, M. and
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References 383 Elliott, N.C., Frenc
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References 385 Ferreira, A.J. and B
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References 387 Foerster, L.A., Quei
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References 389 Garcia, A. and Barri
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References 391 Godin, C. and Boivin
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References 393 Guido, A.S. and Ruff
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References 395 Hayat, M. and Lin, K
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References 397 Hofmaster, R.N. 1961
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References 399 Huo, S.T., Wei, Z.G.
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References 401 Jackson, C.G., Neema
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References 403 Jones, W.A. 1979. Th
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References 405 Kester, K.M., Smith,
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References 407 Komazaki, S. 1993. B
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References 409 Kushida, T., Katagir
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References 411 Lee, S.C., Yoo, J.K.
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References 413 Liljesthršm, G.G. 1
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References 415 Lo, K.C. and Chiu, S
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References 417 Manjunath, T.M. 1972
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References 419 McCutcheon, G.S. and
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References 421 Michael, P.J. 1981.
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References 423 Moreira, G.R.P. and
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References 425 Nakahara, M. and Kai
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References 449 Sinha, T.B. and Sing
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References 453 Starù, P. and Ghosh
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References 455 Steinkraus, D.C., Sl
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