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4.16 Trichoplusia ni 321 describing laboratory experiments in which parasitoids, predators and/or pathogens have been tested on T. ni eggs or larvae. It is often not possible to determine from these accounts whether or not the natural enemy involved has been found attacking eggs or larvae of T. ni in the field and hence possibly a useful control agent. If T. ni is susceptible to the agent in the laboratory, such records have often been included, although behavioural or other factors might well influence its effectiveness under field conditions. No attempt has been made to include reports of all of the minor natural enemies, especially in the earlier literature. As will become clearer when the situation is discussed later, many parasitoids (Table 4.16.1), predators (Table 4.16.2) and pathogens (Table 4.16.3) have been recorded attacking the cabbage looper in the field and/or in the laboratory and there is little doubt that looper populations are frequently kept at sub-economic levels by their action. A number of the natural enemies recorded are not widespread in distribution and appear to be incidental records. Many of the predators are widely polyphagous and attack insect pests in several orders, although a few are considerably more selective than that. Parasitoids, on the other hand, tend to be significantly less polyphagous than predators and some appear to be confined to T. ni, at least in certain crops. Where parasitoids have a relatively broad host range, available records indicate that this extends mainly to larvae of other Lepidoptera (generally pest species) in the same crop situation. The extent to which it extends also to non-pest, non-target species is not documented. Nevertheless, there are several species that merit serious consideration as candidates for classical biological control. All of the Trichogramma species oviposit and develop in the host egg. A few others (eg. Copidosoma truncatellum, Chelonus blackburni, Chelonus insularis) oviposit in the egg and develop in the host larva; and the remainder are larval and/or pupal parasitoids. Naturally occurring epizootics of nuclear polyhedrosis virus in medium to large T. ni larvae are considered to be the major mortality factor affecting them on cabbage in summer and autumn in southern California (Oatman and Platner 1969), on broccoli in Virginia (Hofmaster 1961) and on cabbage in North Carolina (Elsey and Rabb 1970b). Polyhedrosis was seldom a major factor on cotton in southern California (Ehler 1977b), although outbreaks did occur late in the season or at times of high T. ni abundance (Ehler and van den Bosch 1974). Although the mortality produced is probably not significant, birds and bats are known to feed on moths in flight; and earwigs on adults resting beneath host plants (McKinney 1944; Sutherland 1966).
Table 4.16.1 Parasitoids of Trichoplusia ni Species HYMENOPTERA BRACONIDAE Country Reference Cardiochiles nigriceps USA Harding 1976 Chelonus blackburni USA Fye & Jackson 1973; Jackson et al. 1979 Chelonus curvimaculatus USA Soldevila & Jones 1991, 1994 Chelonus nr curvimaculatus USA Jones et al. 1981, 1990; Jones 1986 Chelonus formosanus Taiwan Chou 1981 Chelonus insularis USA Ehler et al. 1973; Ehler & van den Bosch 1974; Jones 1982; Henneberry et al. 1991 Chelonus sp. USA BŸhler et al. 1985 Cotesia autographae USA Muesebeck & Krombein 1951 Cotesia congregata USA Riley 1883 Cotesia glomerata USA Muesebeck & Krombein 1951; van den Bosch & Hagen 1966; Ehler 1977a Cotesia laeviceps USA Oatman et al. 1983a Cotesia marginiventris USA van den Bosch & Hagen 1966; Ehler & van den Bosch 1974, Harding 1976, Latheef & Irwin 1983; Henneberry et al. 1991 Cotesia plutellae India Manjunath 1972; Joshi & Sharma 1974 Cotesia ruficrus USA India McCutcheon et al. 1983 Manjunath 1972 Cotesia spp. USA Harding 1976 Cotesia yakutatensis Meteorus autographae USA India Miller & West 1987 Manjunath 1972 USA Muesebeck & Krombein 1951; Grant & Shepard 1984 322 Biological Control of Insect Pests: Southeast Asian Prospects
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Biological Control of Insect Pests:
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ii The Australian Centre for Intern
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iv 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 Natural enem
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vi 4.14 4.15 4.16 Phyllocnistis cit
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1 Abstract Introduction 1 Biologica
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3 Introduction Introduction 3 Water
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Figure 1. Introduction 5 integratio
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Introduction 7 necessary those used
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10 Biological Control of Insect Pes
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Table 4.1.1 Natural enemies of Agri
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Table 4.2.1 Average figures (days)
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Table 4.2.2 Natural enemies of Anom
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Table 4.2.2 (contÕd) Natural enemi
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Table 3 Order No. of +s 26 1. 41 2.
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4.4 Aphis gossypii India Myanmar ++
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Host plants Damage 4.4 Aphis gossyp
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4.4 Aphis gossypii the abundance of
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Table 4.4.1 (contÕd) HYMENOPTERA A
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Table 4.4.1 (contÕd) HYMENOPTERA A
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Table 4.4.1 (contÕd) Parasitoids o
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Table 4.4.1 (contÕd) Parasitoids o
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4.4 Aphis gossypii 59 Under humid c
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Table 4.4.3 Releases for the biolog
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4.4 Aphis gossypii 63 that the lyco
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IRAQ ISRAEL 4.4 Aphis gossypii 65 d
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4.4 Aphis gossypii 67 Lysiphlebus t
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USA USSR 4.4 Aphis gossypii 69 Lysi
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4.4 Aphis gossypii 71 the posterior
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4.4 Aphis gossypii 73 Aphidius cole
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4.4 Aphis gossypii 75 Ephedrus plag
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4.4 Aphis gossypii 77 as attacking
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Diptera 4.4 Aphis gossypii 79 insta
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4.4 Aphis gossypii 81 probing) of s
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4.4 Aphis gossypii 83 open fields w
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Table 4.5.1 Insect predators of Cos
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Table 4.5.1 (contÕd) Insect predat
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Table 4.5.2 Introductions for the b
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Table 4.5.2 (contÕd) Introductions
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100 Biological Control of Insect Pe
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Table 4.7.2 (contÕd) Diaphorina ci
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Table 4.7.4 (contÕd) Hyperparasito
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Table 4.7.5 (contÕd) Hyperparsitoi
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4.9 Dysmicoccus brevipes India 20°
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Biology 4.9 Dysmicoccus brevipes 14
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Natural enemies 4.9 Dysmicoccus bre
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Table 4.9.2 Introductions for the b
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Table 4.9.2 (contÕd) Introductions
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4.9 Dysmicoccus brevipes 153 INDONE
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TRINIDAD USA 4.9 Dysmicoccus brevip
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4.10 Hypothenemus hampei India 20°
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Biology 4.10 Hypothenemus hampei 15
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4.10 Hypothenemus hampei 161 tissue
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Host plants 4.10 Hypothenemus hampe
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4.10 Hypothenemus hampei 165 the en
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4.10 Hypothenemus hampei 167 remain
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Table 4.10.1 (contÕd) Natural enem
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Asia 4.10 Hypothenemus hampei 171 C
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Table 4.10.2 (contÕd) Introduction
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4.10 Hypothenemus hampei 175 relati
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4.10 Hypothenemus hampei 177 to 30%
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4.10 Hypothenemus hampei 179 P. nas
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4.10 Hypothenemus hampei 181 Planta
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4.10 Hypothenemus hampei 183 Asian
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Table 4.11.1 Development times, and
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Table 4.11.2 Natural enemies of Leu
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4.12 Nezara viridula India Myanmar
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Biology Damage 4.12 Nezara viridula
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4.12 Nezara viridula 201 which cons
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Table 4.12.1 (contÕd) Parasitoids
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4.12 Nezara viridula 209 attracted
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Table 4.12.2 Introductions for the
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4.12 Nezara viridula 217 Doubt has
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4.12 Nezara viridula 219 Africa and
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BRAZIL 4.12 Nezara viridula 221 par
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4.12 Nezara viridula 223 parasitisa
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4.12 Nezara viridula 225 Anastatus
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THAILAND TONGA USA VANUATU 4.12 Nez
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4.12 Nezara viridula 229 Gryon sp.
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4.12 Nezara viridula 231 reproducti
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4.12 Nezara viridula 233 Ectophasio
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4.13 Ophiomyia phaseoli India Myanm
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Biology Host plants 4.13 Ophiomyia
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Natural enemies 4.13 Ophiomyia phas
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EGYPT ETHIOPIA 4.13 Ophiomyia phase
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Page 324 and 325: 5 References 349 Abasa, R.O. 1975.
Page 326 and 327: References 351 Alfaro, F., Garcia-M
Page 328 and 329: References 353 Argyriou, L.C. 1970.
Page 330 and 331: References 355 Ayoub, M.A. 1960. Ph
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Page 340 and 341: References 365 Brun, L.O., Marcilla
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References 371 Chien, C.C., Chu, Y.
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References 373 CIE 1985. Distributi
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References 375 Compere, H. 1939. Me
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References 377 Crouzel, I.S. and Sa
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References 379 De Oliveira Filho, M
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References 381 Ding, Y., Li, M. and
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References 383 Elliott, N.C., Frenc
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References 385 Ferreira, A.J. and B
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References 387 Foerster, L.A., Quei
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References 389 Garcia, A. and Barri
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References 391 Godin, C. and Boivin
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References 393 Guido, A.S. and Ruff
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References 395 Hayat, M. and Lin, K
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References 397 Hofmaster, R.N. 1961
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References 399 Huo, S.T., Wei, Z.G.
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References 401 Jackson, C.G., Neema
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References 403 Jones, W.A. 1979. Th
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References 405 Kester, K.M., Smith,
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References 407 Komazaki, S. 1993. B
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References 409 Kushida, T., Katagir
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References 411 Lee, S.C., Yoo, J.K.
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References 413 Liljesthršm, G.G. 1
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References 415 Lo, K.C. and Chiu, S
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References 417 Manjunath, T.M. 1972
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References 419 McCutcheon, G.S. and
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References 421 Michael, P.J. 1981.
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References 423 Moreira, G.R.P. and
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References 425 Nakahara, M. and Kai
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References 427 Nixon, G.E.J. 1937.
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References 429 Oncuer, C. and Bayha
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References 431 Panis, A. 1977. Pseu
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References 433 Pe-a, J.E., Gilbin-D
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References 435 Prinsloo, G.L. 1985.
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References 437 Reddy, K.B. and Bhat
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References 439 Roepke, W. 1912. On
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References 441 Saha, J.L. and Agarw
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References 443 Schlinger, E.I. and
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References 445 Shi, D.S. 1984. Stud
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References 447 Singh, R. and Bhatt,
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References 449 Sinha, T.B. and Sing
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References 451 Soldevila, A.I. and
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References 453 Starù, P. and Ghosh
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References 455 Steinkraus, D.C., Sl
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References 457 Swezey, O.H. 1931. R
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References 459 Tewari, G.C. and Sar
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References 461 Tranfaglia, A. 1979.
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References 463 Ujiye, T. 1990. Stud
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References 465 van Steenis, M.J. 19
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References 467 Vinson, S.B. and Sto
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References 469 Waterston, J. 1915.
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References 471 Wilson, C.G. 1991. N
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References 473 Xu, C.F., Xia, Y.H.,
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References 475 Zhang, X.L. 1987. Pr
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