Biological Control of Insect Pests: Southeast Asian Prospects - EcoPort

314 Biological Control of Insect Pests: Southeast Asian Prospects
Adults live up to 35 days and longer at 15¡ than at 7¡ or 25¡C (Yigit et al.
1994) although maximum progeny are produced at 30¡ (Tingle and Copland
1989). Parasitised hosts are generally rejected after simple antennal contact
but, if not then, also following defensive behaviour of the host or possibly
after detection of the egg stalk emerging from the surface of the host. If not
rejected earlier, they may be rejected after insertion of the ovipositor
(Baaren and Nenon 1994). About 18 eggs are laid each day, up to a total of
300 per female. These hatch in 1.5 to 2 days at 28¡C and there are four larval
instars, each of about 2 days. The pupal stage lasts 7 to 8 days. In Italy there
are 6 (and a partial 7th) generations per year (Zinna 1959, 1960) and in
Tashkent 5 generations (Roxanova and Loseva 1963).
More males than females are produced from young than from old adult
P. citri (Su and Li 1993; Mani 1995), more females from larger hosts and
more males from smaller larval instars (Jong and Alphen 1988, 1989).
Additional information on the biology of L. dactylopii is given by Lloyd
(1958, 1964, 1966) and Tingle and Copland (1989).
The original introduction of L. dactylopii from Brazil to California in
1934 was based on a single pair (Compere 1939). The extent to which the
progeny of this pair may have had genes from later introductions added to
the gene pool is quite unclear. There may thus be good justification for
obtaining fresh stock from matching climatic zones in Brazil if new
introductions are to be made.
Odontochrysa (= Chrysopa) lacciperda Neu.: Chrysopidae
Details of the biology and voracity of this lacewing predator of P. citri are
provided by Krishnamoorthy (1988).
Pseudaphycus maculipennis Hym.: Encyrtidae
This species, studied in Ukraine, for the biological control of P. citri, is said
to be specific (Sinadskii and Kozarzkevskaya 1980).
Scymnus includens Col.: Coccinellidae
The life cycle and rearing details of this important predator of P. citri in Italy
are described by Tranfaglia and Viggiani (1973).
Spalgis epius Lep.: Lycaenidae
The predatory larvae of this lycaenid butterfly are often the commonest
natural enemies of P. citri in India. They also attack Planococcus lilacinus,
Chloropulvinaria psidii and Ferrisia virgata (Chacko et al. 1977).