Northeast Subsistence-Settlement Change: A.D. 700 –1300

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freshwater fish species is particularly lacking. For example, only 4 elements have been identified from the Mud Lake Stream site, even though fish bone represented 26 percent of the charred bone recovered (i.e., nearly 2,756 specimens). Three of these represent landlocked Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and the other is from the Catostomidae (sucker) family (Deal et al. 1991:175). Fur-bearing animals were important to prehistoric peoples as a source of food and clothing and most species are widely distributed over the province. The species most commonly recovered from archaeological sites in New Brunswick are the beaver (Castor canadensis), river otter (Lutra canadensis), muskrat (Ondatra zibrthicus), hare (Lepus americanus), marten (Martes americana), fisher (Martes pennanti), black bear (Ursus americanus), white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), caribou (Rangifer tarandus), and moose (Alces alces). The now-extinct sea mink (Mustela macrodon) has been reported from at least one site in Passamaquoddy Bay and another on Spednic Lake (Black et al. 1998; Deal 1986:89). The non-fur-bearing land mammal species include the porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum) and dog (Canis familiaris). In the Early Historic period dogs were used for hunting beaver, caribou, lynx, and moose, and only occasionally eaten (Christianson 1979:105). Bone and antler tools are common at coastal shell midden sites, including projectile points, awls, needles, combs, and leister prongs (e.g., Sanger 1987:51- 55). The teeth of beaver and various carnivores, such as the fisher, sea mink, and river otter, were also made into tools and pendants (Tyzzer 1943). Marine mammals are represented by harbor seal (Phoca vitulina), hooded seal (Cystophora cristata), gray seal (Halichoerus grypus), sperm whale (Physeter catodon), and harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena). Seals were hunted for their oil and skins by the Mi’kmaq of the northeast coast of New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island, and in Early Historic times these commodities became important in their trade with the Europeans (Prins 1996:99-100). Atlantic walrus (Odobenus rosmarus) was also available to native groups on the northeast coast and nearby Prince Edward Island (Keenlyside 1984:11). Avian remains are also common in coastal shell middens, and more than thirty species have been identified at sites in the Maritime provinces (e.g., Black 1992:235- 236; Erskine 1966; Sanger 1987:70). Migratory bird species are particularly useful for interpreting the season of occupation of prehistoric sites, and therefore, mobility patterns. For example, the pied-billed grebe (Podilymbus podiceps), blue-winged teal (Anas discors), and wood duck (Aix sponsa) are summer residents on the coast of southwestern New Brunswick, while the red-throated loon (Gavia stellata), bufflehead (Bucephala ableola), barrow’s goldeneye (Bucephalia islandica), king eider (Somateria spectabilis), oldsquaw (Clangula hyemalis), white-winged scotter (Melanitta deglandi), surf scotter (Melanitta perspicillata), black scotter (Melanitta nigra), common murre (Uria aalge), thick-billed murre (Uria lomvia), and great auk (Pinguinus impennis) were winter residents (Stewart 1989:62-64, 67). Other species, such as the common loon (Gavia immer), great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo), common goldeneye (Bucephala clangula), common eider (Somateria mollissima), common merganser (Mersus merganser), redbreasted merganser (Mergus serrator), razorbill (Aalca torda), great horned owl (Bubo virginianus), black duck (Anas rubripes), and herring gull (Larus argentatus) were year-round residents. Waterfowl could also be hunted on north shore marshes and lagoons, on the marshes and bogs of southeastern New Brunswick, and on numerous marshy lakes, such as French and Maquapit Lakes in central New Brunswick (Ganong 1904:23). The Bay of Fundy and the eastern coast of New Brunswick have different source waters, with varying currents, tidal amplitudes, and water temperatures (Scott and Scott 1988). These factors affect the diversity and productivity of fish and shellfish species in the two areas. Marine fish species recovered from Late Prehistoric sites include herring (Clupeidae family), Atlantic cod (Gadus morphua), longhorn sculpin (Myoxocephalus octodecemspinosus), Atlantic sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrhynchus), monkfish (Lophius americanus), harbor pollock (Pollachius virens), haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinnus), flounder (Pseudopleuronectes spp.), and hake (Urophycis spp.). Of particular importance were anadromous species, such as Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), gaspereau or alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus), and American shad (Alosa sapidissima), which were available in great numbers during spawning season. They returned yearly to certain rivers, where they could be easily captured at waterfalls, tide-heads, and along narrow thoroughfares between lakes. Ganong (1904:23) lists several ideal locations, including the falls near Milltown on the St. Croix, Aroostok Falls on the Saint John, and most of the mouths of branches of the upper Saint John and Miramichi Rivers. Freshwater (landlocked) Atlantic salmon are found in many of the interior lakes, such as Spednic Lake, which drains into the St. Croix River. Ganong (1904:24) suggests that the catadromous 326 Deal
species, the American eel (Anguilla rostrata) might have been the most important fixed resource for determining campsite and village locations. He notes prehistoric site locations at Nadouan (Eel Ground), on the Miramichi, and Eel River in Restigouche. Weirs were used in some areas to catch eels and other fish, such as salmon and sea trout, on their downstream movement (Christianson 1979:111; Keenlyside 1984; Lutins 1992). Another important fixed resource is the great variety of shellfish along the shorelines of New Brunswick. The most important species utilized along the Bay of Fundy coast was the soft-shell clam (Mya arenaria). Shells of this species form the bulk of most coastal midden deposits in Passamaquoddy Bay. However, several other species have been recovered, including the common mussel (Mytilus edulis), horse mussel (Modiolus modiolus), bean mussel (Crenella glandula), sea scallop (Phlacopecten magellanicus), Arctic saxicave (Hiatella arctica), tortoiseshell limpet (Acmaea testudinalis), Atlantic dogwhelk (Nucella lapillus), northern whelk (Buccinum undatum), ten-ridged whelk (Neptunea decemcostata), Stimpson’s whelk (Colus stimpsoni), rough periwinkle (Littorina saxatilis), round periwinkle (Littorina obstustrata), and common periwinkle (Littorina littorea) (Black 1992:237). Sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis) is also common in some insular shell middens. Clams are often considered a starvation food source, but Sanger (1987:72) suggests that they may have had a pivotal role in an adaptation to a marine environment. They can be easily gathered by all family members and they are edible throughout the winter. Black and Whitehead (1988) believe that shellfish preservation and storage practices may have been developed in the Prehistoric period. This might have affected aboriginal mobility patterns along the southwestern coast. Along the northeast coast of New Brunswick, the Atlantic oyster (Crassostrea virginica) is the most important species, along with the hard-shell clam or quahog (Mercenaria mercenaria), surf clam (Spisula solidissima), soft-shell clam, and the common mussel. Rock and Mineral Resources (Figure 17.2) Rock (or lithic) materials constitute the most significant class of inorganic resources collected by the prehistoric peoples of New Brunswick. This includes a variety of knappable rocks for making chipped stone artifacts, such as knives, arrowheads, and engraving and scraping tools. Less brittle varieties of rock were utilized for hammerstones, anvils, and pecked and ground stone tools, such as gouges, adzes, and axes. Certain clays and minerals were also collected. Clay was used for the manufacture of pottery. Native copper was hammered and shaped into awls and knives, and hematite (red ochre) and graphite were ground and used as pigments. Hematite and graphite usually receive only a brief mention in the archaeological literature. Both minerals can be found in the Bathurst area of northeastern New Brunswick, while hematite is also found at Markhamville, northeast of Saint John (Sabina 1972:15, 29). Snow (1980:298) suggests that the Champlain drainage area of Vermont may have been a regional source area for black graphite, beginning in the Early Woodland period. Knappable lithics include a wide variety of silicates (crystalline, cryptocrystalline and noncrystalline), silicified sediments, and igneous and metamorphosed rocks (Crabtree 1967). The knapper looks for materials of suitable texture, elasticity, and flexibility to facilitate the production of flakes with sharp cutting edges. While many materials can be used to make chipped stone artifacts, there is a tremendous variation in the quality of rocks from and within different source areas. As Crabtree (1967:8) notes, a knapper must have a working knowledge of many different materials, since variations in quality call for different methods in flaking. Certain lithic source areas became well known in prehistoric times and lithics from those areas were widely distributed within the province. Workable fragments could be quarried from outcrops or collected as loose fragments and taken to workshop locations for processing into tool blanks. MacDonald (1994:3) makes a useful distinction between primary, local bedrock sources and secondary sources. The latter can be present at a site due to cultural introduction (“culturally exotic” lithics), or they may be present in the area due to geological transportation (“geologically exotic” lithics). Lithological analyses have been conducted on artifact assemblages from several Late Prehistoric sites in New Brunswick (Black and Wilson 1999; Crotts 1984; Gaunce 1984; MacDonald 1994; Matthew 1884:19-20; Wilson 1983). These studies have relied heavily on visual identification with the aid of low power binocular microscopes. More recent analyses have incorporated geochemical and petrographic techniques that will allow for more accurate identification of specimens to source areas (Burke 2000; Rutherford and Stevens 1991). Primary sources in New Brunswick are found along the Tobique River (Burke 2000), at Washademoak Lake, central New Brunswick, and along the Bay of Fundy coast (Black and Wilson 1999; Chapter 17 Aboriginal Land and Resource Use in New Brunswick During the Late Prehistoric and Early Contact Periods 327
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Northeast Subsistence-Settlement Ch
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Northeast Subsistence-Settlement Ch
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TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures L
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LIST OF FIGURES 2.1 Map of the cent
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9.3 Topographic map of Broome Tech.
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11.1 Upper Susquehanna Site Types (
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PREFACE The New York State Museum h
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Christina B.
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domesticates and the occupation of
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and Rieth highlight the important c
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Dunnell, R. C. (1971). Systematics
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Anthropology, University of Massach
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CHAPTER 2 CENTRAL OHIO VALLEY DURIN
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L a k e E r i e PENNSYLVANIA INDIAN
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L a k e E r i e INDIANA R i v e r G
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Olentangy River and other minor tri
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Figure 2.6. Comparison of Late Wood
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support the notion of resource stre
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F4 F7 F5 F6 F3 F2 F9 F10 F12 F13 F1
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B B M F42 F43 F41 F44 S5 S4 S1 F30
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Table 2.3. continued Temporal Age A
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Table 2.3. continued Temporal Age A
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L a k e E r i e INDIANA o i O h Sal
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Figure 2.13. Map of the Late Prehis
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Figure 2.15. Map of households with
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Figure 2.17. Sample of Late Prehist
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Barkes, B. M. (1982). An Analysis o
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Fort Ancient Tradition, edited by J
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CHAPTER 3 “ . . . to reconstruct
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IT TAKES A VILLAGE Figure 3.2. Arti
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social organizations is drawn prima
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elements of the village, the spaces
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Diametric, concentric, and circumfe
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egion, including Reckner (Augustine
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Chapter 3 Modeling Village Communit
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Figure 3.9. Architectural and nonar
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Figure 3.11. Measuring distances in
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Table 3.2. Descriptive Statistics f
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DISCUSSION Table 3.3. Descriptive S
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Figure 3.14. Box-and-whisker plot o
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Augustine, E. A. (1938d). Important
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Among Some Amazon Tribes. Privately
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on Black Mesa, Arizona. The Univers
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CHAPTER 4 THE EARLY LATE WOODLAND I
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Figure 4.3. Gibraltar Cordmarked ce
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Figure 4.5. Ceramics of the Gibralt
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points and notched Chesser or Lowe
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dated to A.D. 890 (1025) 1230 (DIC-
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Table 4.3. Available Stable Carbon
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where fishing and farming may have
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Figure 4.10. Ceramic of the Sandusk
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singular Mixter Stamped vessels typ
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urial with the dead, broadcasted a
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during the early Late Woodland time
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Valley. North American Archaeologis
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CHAPTER 5 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN TH
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interest in exchange of service or
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CURRENT INVESTIGATIONS In view of t
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710 Area C 700 B-75084 TO-4556 TO-4
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Table 5.1. Summary of Artifacts fro
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e Bull's Point C o o t e s P a r a
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classification system has been appl
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(Crawford et al. 1997a). The same i
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in Ontario was Middle Woodland-deri
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207-212. Smithsonian Institution, W
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CHAPTER 6 EARLY LATE WOODLAND IN SO
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Figure 6.2. Lower Grand River Valle
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Table 6.1. Radiocarbon Dates from t
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segment of the terrace that effecti
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Figure 6.7. Meyer site terrace, vie
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Figure 6.10. Forster site reconstru
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Figure 6.12. Middle Thames River 20
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Figure 6.13. Site situation: a comp
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Dieterman, F. (2001). Princess Poin
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CHAPTER 7 EARLY LATE PREHISTORIC SE
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ticultural hamlets, small and large
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that Clemson Island was greatly inf
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local deposits. Alternately, Stimme
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Table 7.1. Radiocarbon Dates from S
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Pennsylvania continued to practice
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level) overlaps with the West Branc
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Under a population metaphysic, the
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Hatch, J. W., and Koontz, K. L. (19
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CHAPTER 8 NEW DATES FOR OWASCO POTS
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Table 8.1. Key Components of the Th
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Figure 8.1. Location of the Kipp Is
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Table 8.4. Carpenter Brook Phase Ho
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Table 8.5. Physical Characteristics
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Table 8.6. AMS Dates and Calibrated
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REFERENCES CITED Ammerman, A. J., a
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CHAPTER 9 PITS, PLANTS, AND PLACE:
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Thomas/Luckey Broome Tech N 0 0 50
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confluence with the Susquehanna Riv
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Figure 9.3. Topographic map of Broo
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Table 9.2. Feature Types at Thomas/
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Figure 9.4. Histogram of feature de
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Table 9.4. Plant Remains from Thoma
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Figure 9.7. Sample composition of n
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Figure 9.9. Seed composition (exclu
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suggests that the gathering of wild
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of posts may mark remnants of tempo
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for allowing me repeated and unteth
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History Press, Garden City, New Yor
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CHAPTER 10 UPLAND LAND USE PATTERNS
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LOCAL LEVEL ANALYSIS Local level an
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N104 E101 Unit 19A Unit 7A Unit 12A
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Table 10.2. Park Creek II Feature A
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Fea. 2 Fea. 5 0 1 2 N Figure 10.4.
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encounterlike hunting/butchering st
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END NOTES 1. A village is defined a
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Perrelli, D. J. (1994). Gender, Mob
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CHAPTER 11 EARLY LATE PREHISTORIC S
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Table 11.1. Upper Susquehanna Site
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Table 11.2. Summary of Late Middle
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Table 11.3. Settlement Features of
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approximately 1,000 sq. ft, there i
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Table 11.5. Summary of Seed Identif
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importance of hunting and hunting-r
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portion of the Susquehanna Valley,
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Herrick, J. W., and Snow, D. R. (19
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CHAPTER 12 WOODLAND PERIOD SETTLEME
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oundaries were given. According to
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Table 12.1: Selected Radiocarbon an
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shads and herrings of the family Cl
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consists of large concentrations of
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(1990) survey of recorded sites in
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York State 92:1-8. Busby, M. (1966)
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CHAPTER 13 PALEOETHNOBOTANICAL INDI
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Figure 13.1. Forest regions of the
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Table 13.1. Distribution of Nut Tre
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ation in feature contents. For mult
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Figure 13.4. Nutshell density (gray
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Figure 13.5. Seed density and maize
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Table 13.3. Seed Indicators-Maine S
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Table 13.4. Broome Tech Site: Selec
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6, and it occurred in 58 percent of
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Table 13.6. Continued Site Uncalibr
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Acknowledgments I thank John Hart f
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y K. J. Gremillion, pp. 161-178. Th
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CHAPTER 14 FROM HUNTER-GATHERER CAM
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Figure 14.1. Distribution of select
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available to Ceci were simply too l
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the AMS date of A.D. 1185 (A.D. 127
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Table 14.1. Continued Site Lab C14
Page 289 and 290: within single settlements remains e
Page 291 and 292: noncoastal residential sites certai
Page 293 and 294: Figure 14.3. Two stratigraphic prof
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Page 297 and 298: other related questions yet, and so
Page 299 and 300: Northeast Historical Archaeology 21
Page 301 and 302: Thomas, P. A. (1976). Contrastive s
Page 303 and 304: CHAPTER 15 “towns they have none
Page 305 and 306: Table 15.1. Key to Figure 15.1: Arc
Page 307 and 308: Maize will normally not preserve fo
Page 309 and 310: artifacts. Cowie (2000) suggests th
Page 311 and 312: creativity to resolve, but is also
Page 313 and 314: Ph.D. dissertation, Department of A
Page 315 and 316: CHAPTER 16 OUT OF THE BLUE AND INTO
Page 317 and 318: Figure 16.2. Map of the Bliss Islan
Page 319 and 320: shell-bearing sites located on the
Page 321 and 322: site. Middle Maritime Woodland occu
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Page 325 and 326: Table 16.3. Faunal Remains Associat
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Page 329 and 330: the Maine/Maritimes area have argue
Page 331 and 332: SE: warm season (Rojo 1987:221); sp
Page 333 and 334: Ethnohistory 36:257-284. Bourque, B
Page 335 and 336: CHAPTER 17 ABORIGINAL LAND AND RESO
Page 337 and 338: Table 17.1. Chronological and Ceram
Page 339: Among the food plants listed above,
Page 343 and 344: the Early Woodland period. Tools ma
Page 345 and 346: Copper Resources Throughout the Lat
Page 347 and 348: midden deposits were located along
Page 349 and 350: a model with two distinct populatio
Page 351 and 352: Table 17.2. Summary of Landscape an
Page 353 and 354: File Report 93-1, Fredericton. Alle
Page 355 and 356: Anthropology, Temple University, Ph
Page 357 and 358: stone age found at Maquapit Lake. N
Page 359 and 360: CHAPTER 18 MAIZE AND VILLAGES: A Su
Page 361 and 362: use of the term “small village”
Page 363 and 364: 1325 [1425] 1460) (Boyd et al. 1998
Page 365 and 366: several centuries after its first a
Page 367 and 368: from excavations at village sites h
Page 369 and 370: 133-156. New York State Museum Bull
Page 371 and 372: longhouses. American Antiquity 55:4
Page 373 and 374: CONTRIBUTORS Timothy J. Abel. Carth
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Northeast Subsistence-Settlement Change: A.D. 700 –1300

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