Northeast Subsistence-Settlement Change: A.D. 700 –1300

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may have served as a crossroads between cultural developments occurring in different parts of the <strong>Northeast</strong> and Middle Atlantic regions. Extensive excavations in the 1930s, 1970s, and 1990s completely or nearly completely revealed the community plans of more than a dozen Late Prehistoric villages, and tested several hamlet, rockshelter, and shortterm resource procurement sites (Hart 1993; Means 1998a, 1998b, 2000b, 2000c, 2001; Means et al. 1998). Because of the premodern nature of the 1930s Somerset County Relief Excavations (e.g., prior to radiocarbon dating and the use of flotation) and the problematic nature of the chronology for the Gnagey No. 3 site (see below), our understanding of prehistoric subsistence economies for the early Late Prehistoric period and the preceding Late Woodland derives primarily from a series of CRM investigations in the vicinity of Meyersdale, Pennsylvania (Means 1998b). These investigations provide information from multiple localities along a small segment of the Casselman River and, in several cases, multiple components at individual localities. Despite the extensive nature of these CRM investigations, little macrobotanical evidence is available for periods predating the Late Prehistoric. Flotation recovery at six Late Woodland sites encountered evidence of edible wild seeds that appear to have been serendipitously gathered rather than intensively harvested (Raymer and Bonhange-Freund 1999:32). One of these six Late Woodland sites was interpreted to be a large ceremonial enclosure used over several centuries, extending back to the end of the Middle Woodland period (Coppock et al. 1998). The presence of taxa favoring edge zones at this site may have resulted from periodic clearing of this ceremonial enclosure and the timing of periodic gatherings “to coincide with the seasons of availability of these economically useful wild plants” (Raymer and Bonhange-Freund 1999:32). One other Late Woodland site may have been a gathering point for collecting nuts. The nature of the Late Woodland settlements and the macrobotanical remains could indicate that the local ecology was actively managed by the prehistoric inhabitants of the region to at least a limited degree (Raymer and Bonhange-Freund 1999:33). Since radiocarbon assays for the Meyersdale CRM project were obtained from wood charcoal, all maize that was recovered from Late Prehistoric contexts in the region is indirectly dated by association. Maize was recovered from a hearth at the Railroad site that was conventionally dated to 1150±50 B.P. (cal 2σ A.D. 780 [890] 1000) (Boyd et al. 1998a), the earliest (albeit indirect) date for maize in the region. This site was initially interpreted to represent a village site occupied over two centuries (Boyd et al. 1998a), but was reinterpreted as more likely representing a series of hamlets occupied repeatedly on a seasonal basis (Means 1999b:28) at least until the middle of the calibrated fifteenth century. This site has the latest documented maize remains in the region, dated by association with an assay of wood charcoal at 510+50 B.P. (cal 2σ A.D. 1325 [1425] 1460) (Boyd et al. 1998a). The large number of maize cobs used opportunistically for fuel throughout the occupation at this site suggests that a primary function was the intensive harvesting of maize and the removal of kernels for transport elsewhere (Raymer and Bonhange-Freund 1999:5). Also recovered from the site were 1 domesticated sunflower achene; a possible maygrass seed; 3 edible herbs; cucurbit rind fragments (probable gourd and unidentified squash/gourd rind); seeds from 17 fruit-producing trees, shrubs, and vines; and walnut and common bean residue on sherd fragments, the latter found in an undated feature context (Raymer and Bonhange-Freund 1999:4; Newman 1998:5). The earliest confirmed date for maize and for a definite village site is 1080±70 B.P. (cal 2σ A.D. 800 [985] 1115) at the Petenbrink site. No distinct evidence for a palisade was encountered at this site, though an overlaying occupation may have obliterated all traces of a palisade (Boyd et al. 1998b). Macrobotanical data for this site are otherwise limited because of poor preservation probably related to Native disposal into a conveniently located nearby stream and intensive modern farming practices (Raymer and Bonhange-Freund 1999:10). Excavations at Pony Farm Triangle East, a possible village site, encountered a storage feature below more than 2 meters of historic fill. Containing the largest quantity of maize from a single context in the region, and evidence for the cultivation of sunflower (Raymer and Bonhange-Freund 1999:8), this storage feature was dated to 770±60 B.P. (cal 2σ 1175 [1270] 1305) (Means and Fischler 1998). In contexts suggesting that they were consumed and not cultivated on site, maize was also recovered in small quantities from one camp or hamlet (Raymer and Bonhange-Freund 1999:25) and one rockshelter site — the latter in a mixed context (Raymer and Bonhange-Freund 1998). In total, the Meyersdale CRM project recovered maize from contexts dated to the calibrated tenth through fifteenth centuries in village and nonvillage contexts. Maize has also been recovered from largely undated or poorly dated contexts at the nearby Gnagey No. 3 (Blake and Cutler 1983) and Peck No. 2 (Augustine 1937) village sites, as well as other village sites in the 52 Means
egion, including Reckner (Augustine 1938a:8), Emerick (Augustine 1938a:10, 1938b:42), Powell No. 1 (Augustine 1938c:62), Fort Hill (Augustine 1939a), and Quemahoning (George 1983b:93-97). The conclusion that the Late Prehistoric inhabitants of the Meyersdale vicinity were intensive maize horticulturists who supplemented their diet with cultivated sunflower and squash, seasonally available fruits, edible wild seeds, and hunting (Raymer and Bonhange-Freund 1999:34- 35) might possibly be extended to all Late Prehistoric village sites in the region. However, Raymer and Bonhange-Freund’s (1999:34) conclusion that beans were an important dietary staple throughout this period has been challenged through direct AMS dating of beans, as detailed in Hart and Scarry (1999) and Hart et al. (2002). Their research shows that the common bean does not become prevalent on sites in the <strong>Northeast</strong> until after the end of the calibrated thirteenth century. This direct AMS dating has also led to a reconsideration of the occupational history of the Gnagey No. 3 site, once viewed as the earliest dated nucleated village in the region (George 1983a). In conjunction with the AMS dating of beans from this site (Hart and Scarry 1999), a review of the full suite of radiocarbon assays originally obtained from the site in the 1970s (Means 1998b) in terms of stratigraphic evidence and a reconsideration of the community patterns of the overlapping components (Means 2001) suggests that the first component dates to the second half of the calibrated thirteenth century and the second component dates to the first part of the calibrated fourteenth century. The proposed revised chronology for the Gnagey No. 3 site indicates that the lack of a central plaza in the first component cannot be attributed to this component representing an early village, especially since the early component at the Petenbrink village site does have a central plaza. This issue will be returned to in the Conclusions section of this chapter. Given the existence of a nonresidential ceremonial enclosure used throughout the Late Woodland period and the first part of the early Late Prehistoric period in the Meyersdale area as an integrative facility for dispersed camps and hamlets (Coppock et al. 1998), the presence of a central plaza at the first component of the Petenbrink village site suggests that the first villagers in the region recognized the importance of incorporating a socially integrative facility into their nucleated settlement. The settlement history for the remainder of the Late Prehistoric period in the Allegheny Mountains region is unclear due to the paucity of radiocarbon assays for the majority of village sites excavated in the region. Since Hart and associates have amassed such strong evidence that the timing of the adoption of the bean dates to no earlier than the end of the calibrated thirteenth century, we can use this information as a relative chronological indicator and assume that sites with beans date to after that period. However, the lack of beans documented at many sites may not result from their absence, but rather the fact that all contexts were not sampled or that, for many sites excavated in the premodern era, no flotation samples exist and the recovery of beans was fortuitous. The following summary is based largely on a rereading of Hart (1993), Means (1996, 1998a, 1998b, 1999, 2000b, 2000c, and 2001), Means et al. (1998), and Raymer and Bonhange-Freund (1999) in the context of ideas presented throughout this volume. By the end of the calibrated tenth century, if not earlier, nucleated settlements arose in the region as socially integrative facilities and multiple households became congruent within a single settlement. Hamlets and seasonally occupied specialized procurement camps continued to be used after the first villages arose, with the functions of some remaining unchanged. The location of some of these nonvillage sites at the boundaries of two or more ecotones suggests that they were placed to maximize the exploitation of wild resources and probably were part of a divided-risk strategy (see Hart 1993) that was continued and intensified after the cultivation of maize began. Maize may have been cultivated first at small hamlets that continued to function as harvesting centers after the rise of nucleated villages, though the evidence for this is equivocal at best. Perhaps in conjunction with increasingly complex social groupings, considerably larger villages appeared during and after the calibrated thirteenth century. Peck No. 1 apparently increased in size from the absorption of single-household hamlets that formed and maintained discrete clusters in the village’s layout (Means 1998a). One of the larger villages in the region, the second occupation at Peck No. 2, has a relatively complex community pattern, and may date to after the calibrated thirteenth century, based on the recovery of beans from a single feature. This component has evidence for two large dwellings with a communal function (Hart 1993), segmentation of the house ring including the development of a discrete courtyard grouping (Means 1998a, 2001) and a discrete cemetery that may have been associated with a lineage group (Means 1999b). Other sites with similar discrete cemeteries include Gnagey No. 3, Reckner, Powell No. 1, and Troutman (Means 1999b). Perhaps representing daughter settlements from larger communities, comparatively small villages are Chapter 3 Modeling Village Community Organization Using Data From the Somerset County Relief Excavations 53
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Northeast Subsistence-Settlement Ch
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Northeast Subsistence-Settlement Ch
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TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures L
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LIST OF FIGURES 2.1 Map of the cent
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9.3 Topographic map of Broome Tech.
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11.1 Upper Susquehanna Site Types (
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PREFACE The New York State Museum h
Page 15 and 16: CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Christina B.
Page 17 and 18: domesticates and the occupation of
Page 19 and 20: and Rieth highlight the important c
Page 21 and 22: Dunnell, R. C. (1971). Systematics
Page 23 and 24: Anthropology, University of Massach
Page 25 and 26: CHAPTER 2 CENTRAL OHIO VALLEY DURIN
Page 27 and 28: L a k e E r i e PENNSYLVANIA INDIAN
Page 29 and 30: L a k e E r i e INDIANA R i v e r G
Page 31 and 32: Olentangy River and other minor tri
Page 33 and 34: Figure 2.6. Comparison of Late Wood
Page 35 and 36: support the notion of resource stre
Page 37 and 38: F4 F7 F5 F6 F3 F2 F9 F10 F12 F13 F1
Page 39 and 40: B B M F42 F43 F41 F44 S5 S4 S1 F30
Page 41 and 42: Table 2.3. continued Temporal Age A
Page 43 and 44: Table 2.3. continued Temporal Age A
Page 45 and 46: L a k e E r i e INDIANA o i O h Sal
Page 47 and 48: Figure 2.13. Map of the Late Prehis
Page 49 and 50: Figure 2.15. Map of households with
Page 51 and 52: Figure 2.17. Sample of Late Prehist
Page 53 and 54: Barkes, B. M. (1982). An Analysis o
Page 55 and 56: Fort Ancient Tradition, edited by J
Page 57 and 58: CHAPTER 3 “ . . . to reconstruct
Page 59 and 60: IT TAKES A VILLAGE Figure 3.2. Arti
Page 61 and 62: social organizations is drawn prima
Page 63 and 64: elements of the village, the spaces
Page 65: Diametric, concentric, and circumfe
Page 69 and 70: Chapter 3 Modeling Village Communit
Page 71 and 72: Figure 3.9. Architectural and nonar
Page 73 and 74: Figure 3.11. Measuring distances in
Page 75 and 76: Table 3.2. Descriptive Statistics f
Page 77 and 78: DISCUSSION Table 3.3. Descriptive S
Page 79 and 80: Figure 3.14. Box-and-whisker plot o
Page 81 and 82: Augustine, E. A. (1938d). Important
Page 83 and 84: Among Some Amazon Tribes. Privately
Page 85 and 86: on Black Mesa, Arizona. The Univers
Page 87 and 88: CHAPTER 4 THE EARLY LATE WOODLAND I
Page 89 and 90: Figure 4.3. Gibraltar Cordmarked ce
Page 91 and 92: Figure 4.5. Ceramics of the Gibralt
Page 93 and 94: points and notched Chesser or Lowe
Page 95 and 96: dated to A.D. 890 (1025) 1230 (DIC-
Page 97 and 98: Table 4.3. Available Stable Carbon
Page 99 and 100: where fishing and farming may have
Page 101 and 102: Figure 4.10. Ceramic of the Sandusk
Page 103 and 104: singular Mixter Stamped vessels typ
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Page 107 and 108: during the early Late Woodland time
Page 109 and 110: Valley. North American Archaeologis
Page 111 and 112: CHAPTER 5 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN TH
Page 113 and 114: interest in exchange of service or
Page 115 and 116: CURRENT INVESTIGATIONS In view of t
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710 Area C 700 B-75084 TO-4556 TO-4
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Table 5.1. Summary of Artifacts fro
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e Bull's Point C o o t e s P a r a
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classification system has been appl
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(Crawford et al. 1997a). The same i
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in Ontario was Middle Woodland-deri
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207-212. Smithsonian Institution, W
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CHAPTER 6 EARLY LATE WOODLAND IN SO
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Figure 6.2. Lower Grand River Valle
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Table 6.1. Radiocarbon Dates from t
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segment of the terrace that effecti
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Figure 6.7. Meyer site terrace, vie
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Figure 6.10. Forster site reconstru
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Figure 6.12. Middle Thames River 20
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Figure 6.13. Site situation: a comp
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Dieterman, F. (2001). Princess Poin
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CHAPTER 7 EARLY LATE PREHISTORIC SE
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ticultural hamlets, small and large
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that Clemson Island was greatly inf
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local deposits. Alternately, Stimme
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Table 7.1. Radiocarbon Dates from S
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Pennsylvania continued to practice
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level) overlaps with the West Branc
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Under a population metaphysic, the
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Hatch, J. W., and Koontz, K. L. (19
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CHAPTER 8 NEW DATES FOR OWASCO POTS
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Table 8.1. Key Components of the Th
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Figure 8.1. Location of the Kipp Is
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Table 8.4. Carpenter Brook Phase Ho
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Table 8.5. Physical Characteristics
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Table 8.6. AMS Dates and Calibrated
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REFERENCES CITED Ammerman, A. J., a
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CHAPTER 9 PITS, PLANTS, AND PLACE:
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Thomas/Luckey Broome Tech N 0 0 50
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confluence with the Susquehanna Riv
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Figure 9.3. Topographic map of Broo
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Table 9.2. Feature Types at Thomas/
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Figure 9.4. Histogram of feature de
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Table 9.4. Plant Remains from Thoma
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Figure 9.7. Sample composition of n
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Figure 9.9. Seed composition (exclu
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suggests that the gathering of wild
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of posts may mark remnants of tempo
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for allowing me repeated and unteth
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History Press, Garden City, New Yor
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CHAPTER 10 UPLAND LAND USE PATTERNS
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LOCAL LEVEL ANALYSIS Local level an
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N104 E101 Unit 19A Unit 7A Unit 12A
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Table 10.2. Park Creek II Feature A
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Fea. 2 Fea. 5 0 1 2 N Figure 10.4.
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encounterlike hunting/butchering st
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END NOTES 1. A village is defined a
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Perrelli, D. J. (1994). Gender, Mob
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CHAPTER 11 EARLY LATE PREHISTORIC S
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Table 11.1. Upper Susquehanna Site
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Table 11.2. Summary of Late Middle
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Table 11.3. Settlement Features of
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approximately 1,000 sq. ft, there i
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Table 11.5. Summary of Seed Identif
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importance of hunting and hunting-r
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portion of the Susquehanna Valley,
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Herrick, J. W., and Snow, D. R. (19
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CHAPTER 12 WOODLAND PERIOD SETTLEME
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oundaries were given. According to
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Table 12.1: Selected Radiocarbon an
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shads and herrings of the family Cl
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consists of large concentrations of
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(1990) survey of recorded sites in
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York State 92:1-8. Busby, M. (1966)
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CHAPTER 13 PALEOETHNOBOTANICAL INDI
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Figure 13.1. Forest regions of the
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Table 13.1. Distribution of Nut Tre
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ation in feature contents. For mult
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Figure 13.4. Nutshell density (gray
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Figure 13.5. Seed density and maize
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Table 13.3. Seed Indicators-Maine S
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Table 13.4. Broome Tech Site: Selec
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6, and it occurred in 58 percent of
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Table 13.6. Continued Site Uncalibr
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Acknowledgments I thank John Hart f
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y K. J. Gremillion, pp. 161-178. Th
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CHAPTER 14 FROM HUNTER-GATHERER CAM
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Figure 14.1. Distribution of select
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available to Ceci were simply too l
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the AMS date of A.D. 1185 (A.D. 127
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Table 14.1. Continued Site Lab C14
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within single settlements remains e
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noncoastal residential sites certai
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Figure 14.3. Two stratigraphic prof
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to the Maritime Provinces on the Gu
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other related questions yet, and so
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Northeast Historical Archaeology 21
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Thomas, P. A. (1976). Contrastive s
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CHAPTER 15 “towns they have none
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Table 15.1. Key to Figure 15.1: Arc
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Maize will normally not preserve fo
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artifacts. Cowie (2000) suggests th
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creativity to resolve, but is also
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Ph.D. dissertation, Department of A
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CHAPTER 16 OUT OF THE BLUE AND INTO
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Figure 16.2. Map of the Bliss Islan
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shell-bearing sites located on the
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site. Middle Maritime Woodland occu
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(e.g., Black 1992:190) limit and co
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Table 16.3. Faunal Remains Associat
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and often poor vertebrate faunal pr
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the Maine/Maritimes area have argue
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SE: warm season (Rojo 1987:221); sp
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Ethnohistory 36:257-284. Bourque, B
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CHAPTER 17 ABORIGINAL LAND AND RESO
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Table 17.1. Chronological and Ceram
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Among the food plants listed above,
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species, the American eel (Anguilla
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the Early Woodland period. Tools ma
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Copper Resources Throughout the Lat
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midden deposits were located along
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a model with two distinct populatio
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Table 17.2. Summary of Landscape an
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File Report 93-1, Fredericton. Alle
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Anthropology, Temple University, Ph
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stone age found at Maquapit Lake. N
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CHAPTER 18 MAIZE AND VILLAGES: A Su
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use of the term “small village”
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1325 [1425] 1460) (Boyd et al. 1998
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several centuries after its first a
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from excavations at village sites h
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133-156. New York State Museum Bull
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longhouses. American Antiquity 55:4
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CONTRIBUTORS Timothy J. Abel. Carth
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Northeast Subsistence-Settlement Change: A.D. 700 –1300

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