Northeast Subsistence-Settlement Change: A.D. 700 –1300

Copper Resources
Throughout the Late Prehistoric period native
groups in New Brunswick and elsewhere in the
Maritimes were acquiring small amounts of native
copper. Copper use can be seen in three stages. During
the Early Woodland period, finished copper items,
such as rolled copper beads, were traded into the area
as part of a pan-Northeastern religious cult and trading
network (McEachen 1996; Morin 1978; Rutherford
1990; Turnbull 1976, 1986). During the Middle and Late
Woodland periods, small amounts of local copper were
collected and made into tool forms, such as awls and
blades (Leonard 1996:80-102; Monahan 1990). Finally,
during the Protohistoric period, copper and brass kettles
were obtained through trade with Europeans and
pieces of worn-out kettles were reworked into ornamental
objects, such as the tinkling cones worn by
Mi’kmaq women (Whitehead 1991).
The local copper-working industry of the Late
Prehistoric period featured the cold hammering (and
possibly annealing) of small copper nuggets into
sheets and bars that were made into a variety of artifacts.
Leonard (1996:figure 40) lists 49 archaeological
sites in the greater Northeast where native copper
artifacts have been found. Of the Late Prehistoric sites
with copper assemblages, the only New Brunswick
sites are located in the southeast, in the Shediac area,
while several sites are found in Nova Scotia. The
extensive trade network of the Early Woodland period
that brought in copper to New Brunswick from the
Great Lakes area seems to have been dismantled by
the Middle Woodland period (Rutherford 1990). It is
very likely that local sources became more important,
although only small quantities of copper could be
obtained. Leonard (1996:figure 41) lists 11 potential
native copper sources in the Atlantic region, including
three sites in New Brunswick, one near Bathurst, one
at Clark Point, Passamaquoddy Bay, and another near
Southwest Head, Grand Manan Island. The first
source is a mine yielding copper, zinc, and lead,
which was opened in 1957 (Sabina 1965:15), and may
not have been known to aboriginal peoples. Clark
Point and Grand Manan appear to be primary copper
sources, existing as copper nuggets (nodules), narrow
veins, or patches in trap rocks (Sabina 1965:24, 29).
The eight exotic source areas include one in
Quebec, one in southern Newfoundland, and six in
Nova Scotia, especially the well-known source at
Cape d’Or. Leonard (1996:91) reports on an important
assemblage of copper artifacts from the Skull Island
site, Shediac, which includes two nuggets, two
flattened nuggets, a blank, two large rod-shaped artifacts,
two small rod-shaped artifacts, and two conjoining
fragments of a copper sheet. These artifacts, as
well as many others from sites in Nova Scotia, are
probably made from local copper; however, very little
chemical sourcing of the copper has been attempted
(for an exception see Rapp et al. 1990).
During the Protohistoric period, native groups in
New Brunswick were able to acquire large amounts of
copper in the form of copper kettles, first from the
Basque, and then from the French (Fitzgerald et al.
1993:48). At first the kettles may have been more
important as a source of copper for making traditional
items, and only later as a replacement for pottery
(Miller and Hamell 1986:34). Eventually they became
the centerpiece of a Protohistoric burial tradition, in
which high-status individuals were covered with a
kettle, accompanied by other exotic trade items, such
as iron swords and daggers, and glass beads
(Whitehead 1991). Several “copper kettle” burial sites
have been reported in the Maritime Provinces, including
Portland Point, Restigouche, Red Bank,
Tabusintac, and Tracadie (e.g., Gorham 1928; Harper
1956; Smith 1886; Turnbull 1984). According to
Turgeon (1997:2), the copper kettle, more than any
other European trade item, became associated with
Mi’kmaq religious and political beliefs during the
Early Contact period.
SETTLEMENT MODELS
When Ganong (1899) compiled the first comprehensive
list of possible prehistoric sites in New Brunswick,
he had to rely primarily on the Early Historic literature,
modern Native informants, and place-name nomenclature.
In fact, he was only able to cite four archaeological
sources (i.e., Bailey 1887; Baird 1882; Goodwin 1893;
Matthew 1884). Since that time, hundreds of prehistoric
sites have been located around the province and
many have been excavated. Ganong (1899) reported
sites within seven districts. His first two districts
roughly coincide with the archaeological areas used
here for the discussion of prehistoric settlement
patterning. The latter includes the Chiputneticook-St.
Croix drainage and Passamaquoddy Bay (Ganong’s
Passamaquoddy district), the Saint John River
drainage area (Ganong’s Saint John district), and the
eastern coast (Ganong’s Petitcodiac-Missequash,
Richibucto, Miramichi, Nepisiquit, and Restigouche
districts). The latter districts are still too poorly known
archaeologically to be given separate consideration
Chapter 17 Aboriginal Land and Resource Use in New Brunswick During the Late Prehistoric and Early Contact Periods 331