Northeast Subsistence-Settlement Change: A.D. 700 –1300

species, the American eel (Anguilla rostrata) might
have been the most important fixed resource for
determining campsite and village locations. He notes
prehistoric site locations at Nadouan (Eel Ground), on
the Miramichi, and Eel River in Restigouche. Weirs
were used in some areas to catch eels and other fish,
such as salmon and sea trout, on their downstream
movement (Christianson 1979:111; Keenlyside 1984;
Lutins 1992).
Another important fixed resource is the great variety
of shellfish along the shorelines of New
Brunswick. The most important species utilized along
the Bay of Fundy coast was the soft-shell clam (Mya
arenaria). Shells of this species form the bulk of most
coastal midden deposits in Passamaquoddy Bay.
However, several other species have been recovered,
including the common mussel (Mytilus edulis), horse
mussel (Modiolus modiolus), bean mussel (Crenella
glandula), sea scallop (Phlacopecten magellanicus),
Arctic saxicave (Hiatella arctica), tortoiseshell limpet
(Acmaea testudinalis), Atlantic dogwhelk (Nucella lapillus),
northern whelk (Buccinum undatum), ten-ridged
whelk (Neptunea decemcostata), Stimpson’s whelk
(Colus stimpsoni), rough periwinkle (Littorina saxatilis),
round periwinkle (Littorina obstustrata), and common
periwinkle (Littorina littorea) (Black 1992:237). Sea
urchin (Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis) is also common
in some insular shell middens. Clams are often
considered a starvation food source, but Sanger
(1987:72) suggests that they may have had a pivotal
role in an adaptation to a marine environment. They
can be easily gathered by all family members and
they are edible throughout the winter. Black and
Whitehead (1988) believe that shellfish preservation
and storage practices may have been developed in the
Prehistoric period. This might have affected aboriginal
mobility patterns along the southwestern coast.
Along the northeast coast of New Brunswick, the
Atlantic oyster (Crassostrea virginica) is the most
important species, along with the hard-shell clam or
quahog (Mercenaria mercenaria), surf clam (Spisula
solidissima), soft-shell clam, and the common mussel.
Rock and Mineral Resources (Figure 17.2)
Rock (or lithic) materials constitute the most significant
class of inorganic resources collected by the prehistoric
peoples of New Brunswick. This includes a
variety of knappable rocks for making chipped stone
artifacts, such as knives, arrowheads, and engraving
and scraping tools. Less brittle varieties of rock were
utilized for hammerstones, anvils, and pecked and
ground stone tools, such as gouges, adzes, and axes.
Certain clays and minerals were also collected. Clay
was used for the manufacture of pottery. Native copper
was hammered and shaped into awls and knives,
and hematite (red ochre) and graphite were ground
and used as pigments. Hematite and graphite usually
receive only a brief mention in the archaeological literature.
Both minerals can be found in the Bathurst
area of northeastern New Brunswick, while hematite
is also found at Markhamville, northeast of Saint John
(Sabina 1972:15, 29). Snow (1980:298) suggests that the
Champlain drainage area of Vermont may have been
a regional source area for black graphite, beginning in
the Early Woodland period.
Knappable lithics include a wide variety of silicates
(crystalline, cryptocrystalline and noncrystalline), silicified
sediments, and igneous and metamorphosed
rocks (Crabtree 1967). The knapper looks for materials
of suitable texture, elasticity, and flexibility to facilitate
the production of flakes with sharp cutting edges.
While many materials can be used to make chipped
stone artifacts, there is a tremendous variation in the
quality of rocks from and within different source
areas. As Crabtree (1967:8) notes, a knapper must
have a working knowledge of many different materials,
since variations in quality call for different methods
in flaking. Certain lithic source areas became well
known in prehistoric times and lithics from those
areas were widely distributed within the province.
Workable fragments could be quarried from outcrops
or collected as loose fragments and taken to workshop
locations for processing into tool blanks.
MacDonald (1994:3) makes a useful distinction
between primary, local bedrock sources and secondary
sources. The latter can be present at a site due to
cultural introduction (“culturally exotic” lithics), or
they may be present in the area due to geological
transportation (“geologically exotic” lithics).
Lithological analyses have been conducted on artifact
assemblages from several Late Prehistoric sites in
New Brunswick (Black and Wilson 1999; Crotts 1984;
Gaunce 1984; MacDonald 1994; Matthew 1884:19-20;
Wilson 1983). These studies have relied heavily on
visual identification with the aid of low power binocular
microscopes. More recent analyses have incorporated
geochemical and petrographic techniques that
will allow for more accurate identification of specimens
to source areas (Burke 2000; Rutherford and
Stevens 1991). Primary sources in New Brunswick are
found along the Tobique River (Burke 2000), at
Washademoak Lake, central New Brunswick, and
along the Bay of Fundy coast (Black and Wilson 1999;
Chapter 17 Aboriginal Land and Resource Use in New Brunswick During the Late Prehistoric and Early Contact Periods 327