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VOLTAGE-CONTROL METHODS 85 Typically one might expect to find three frequency conrrol inputs even though only one oscillator is to be controlled. In operation, the voltages at the control inputs are summed together algebraically into an effective control voltage. Thus, if input A is at 5 V, B is at 3 V, and C is at -4 V, then the effective control voltage is 5+3-4=4 V. An unused input can be considered as a zero voltage contribution. Having multiple inputs often eliminates the need for a separate mixer module. The use of separate inputs is also preferable to output mixing by tying two outputs together because the inputs are isolated from each other, thus allowing the mixed outputs to be used elsewhere as well. Occasionally, a fourth input with either a 10-V/ octave or variable sensitivity is provided. When calculating the effective control voltage, the level at this input must be divided by its sensitivity before summing with the other conrrol inputs. Usually, two mechanical inputs, each of which might have coarse and fine adjustment knobs, are associated with the control inputs. One of these in effect changes the basis frequency by adding an additional control voltage, which may range from -10 V to + 10 V. Sometimes a range switch is provided in order to extend the low-frequency range down to fractions of a hertz. The other control is a volts per octave adjustment with the standard value of 1 V/octave being the middle of the range. Besides fine tuning the oscillator, this control can make an ordinary keyboard microtonal wi th perhaps 31 notes to the octave. Finally, there may be a sensitivity control for the fourth control input mentioned earlier. A VCO typically has several different output waveforms. Usually they are available simultaneously, all at the same frequency and with a fixed phase relationship. Sometimes, however, a tapped panel control is used to adjust a single output waveform as a variable mixture of two or three internal waveforms. Figure 3-4 shows the four fundamental synthesizer waveforms and their associated harmonic spectra. A sawtooth wave is so named because of its appearance. It has both odd and even order harmonics that fall off in amplitude as the reciprocal of the harmonic number, which is 6 dB/octave. Its timbre is full-bodied and somewhat bright. At low frequencies, it does indeed sound "sawey." The triangle wave resembles the sawtooth in appearance but has a quite different spectrum. Only odd order harmonics are present and their amplitude falls off as the square of the harmonic number or 12 dB/octave. The timbre of the triangle wave is subdued and mellow and somewhat hollow. The mellowness is due to weak upper harmonics, and the hollowness is due to the exclusively odd harmonic spectrum. The exact spectral characteristics of the rectangular wave depends on its duty cycle. The duty cycle is the ratio of the time spent in the high state divded by the overall period. Spectra are shown for a 50% duty cycle and a 10% duty cycle. Note that in the 50% case, which is called a square wave, only odd order harmonics are present and they decrease at 6 dB/octave. The
vvv·(B) 86 MUSICAL ApPLICATIONS OF MICROPROCESSORS ~. I V (AI 1/9 1/25 1/49 lel I 0.950.87 0.77 0.650.51 0.370.23 0.11 f AA Vv v_ (E) I ·U IIZ Fig. 3-4. Standard voltage-controlled oscillator waveforms. (A) Sawtooth. (8) - Triangle. (C) Rectangle 50%. (D) Rectangle 10%. (E) Sine. timbre is bright, very hollow, and sounds much like a kazoo in the middle frequencies. The 10% wave has a spectrum with considerable energy in the high-frequency harmonics. The spectral envelope resembles that of a comb filter somewhat, but after the first couple of peaks, decreases at an average rate of 6 dB/octave. The timbre is quite buzzy at low frequencies and piercingly bright at middle and high frequencies. Duty cycles around 25 to 30% have a timbre that greatly resembles a sawtooth wave, although the individual harmonics are quite different. Many veo modules have a control voltage input that determines the duty cycle of the rectangular wave. Others may just have a mechanical control to vary the duty cycle or sometimes a fixed 50% wave is all that is available.
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Musical Applications of Microproces
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© 19B5 by Hayden Books A Division
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serve to acquaint the general reade
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SECfrON II. Computer-Controlled Ana
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17. Digital Hardware 589 AnalogModu
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1 Music Synthesis Principles Creati
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MUSIC SYNTHESIS PRINCIPLES 5 own ar
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MusIC SYNTHESIS PRINCIPLES 7 Increa
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MUSIC SYNTHESIS PRINGPLES 9 VERY SM
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MUSIC SYNTHESIS PRINOPLES 11 repres
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MUSIC SYNTHESIS PRINCIPLES 13 The w
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MUSIC SYNTHESIS PRlNCIPLES 15 was c
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MUSIC SYNTHESIS PRlNOPlES 17 In act
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MUSIC SYNTHESIS PRINCIPLES 19 SIN (
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MUSIC SYNTHESIS PRINCIPLES 21 lILt!
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MUSIC SYNTHESIS PRINCIPLES 23 - ,--
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MUSIC SYNTHESIS PRINOPLES 25 + or--
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MUSIC SYNTHESIS PRINCIPLES 27 Human
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MUSIC SYNTHESIS PRINOPLES 29 fundam
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MUSIC SYNTHESIS PRINCIPLES 31 frequ
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MUSIC SYNTHESIS PRINCIPLES 33 from
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Table 5-1. 6502 Instruction Set Lis
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Coding Table 5-3. 68000 Addressing
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Table 5-4. 68000 Instruction Set Su
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Table 5-4. 68000 Instruction Set Su
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6 BasicAnalogModules Probably the m
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BASIC ANALOG MODULES 179 tage remai
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BASIC ANALOG MODULES 181 Op-amps ma
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BASIC ANALOG MODULES 183 '0: :? u
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BASIC ANALOG MODULES 185 with an id
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BASIC ANALOG MODULES 187 EXPONENTIA
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BASIC ANALOG MODULES 189 (or 0.9766
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BASIC ANALOG MODULES 191 4R Vr'o'M
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BASIC ANALOG MODULES 193 tooth with
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BASIC ANALOG MODULES 195 +IOVrel PU
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BASIC ANALOG MODULES 197 Table 6-1.
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BASIC ANALOG MODULES 199 constants
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BASIC ANALOG MODULES 201 12 ~ E 1-
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BASIC ANALOG MODULES 203 R2 R3 100
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BASIC ANALOG MODULES 205 fore, must
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BASIC ANALOG MODULES 207 For peak p
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BASIC ANALOG MODULES 209 22 pF RI S
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BASIC ANALOG MODULES 211 INPUT~OUTP
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BASIC ANALOG MODULES 213 Voltage-Tu
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BASIC ANALOG MODULES 215 +20 +15 +1
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BASIC ANALOG MODULES 217 100 ko. BA
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BASIC ANALOG MODULES 219 +15 V0----
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Digital-to-Analog and tlnalog-to-Di
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DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG AND ANALOG-TO-DIG
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11 CORtrolSequeRce Display andEditi
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CONTROL SEQUENCE DISPLAY AND EDITIN
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SECTIONIII DigitalSynthesis antl So
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Table 12·1. Design Data for Chebys
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~ o Table 12·1. (Cont.) Ripple = 1
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13 Digital Tone Generation Teehniqu
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DIGITAL TONE GENERATION TECHNIQUES
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Sample Number Harm. No. o 2 3 4 5 6
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Sample Spectrum Number 0 1 2 3 4 5
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1,0 0,8 0,6 0.4 0,2 °0 10 12 14 16
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1,o,-----------,----------" Y Ol---
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14 DigitalFiltering In analog synth
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DIGITAL FILTERING 483 Input Samples
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DIGITAL FILTERING 485 the input wav
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DIGITAL FILTERING 487 where 0 is no
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DIGITAL FILTERING 489 BAND REJECT >
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DIGITAL FILTERING 491 Next the inpu
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DIGITAL. FILTERING 493 circuits mak
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DIGITAL FILTERING 495 OUTPUT Fig. 1
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DIGITAL FILTERING 497 INPUT ~8~~~~~
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DIGITAL FILTERING 499 the turnover
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DIGITAL FILTERING 501 frequency is
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+ 3 1 oL-_-...l__---l__---L__---r-_
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DIGITAL FILTERING 505 When programm
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DIGITAL FILTERING 507 lowest freque
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DIGITAL FILTERING 509 Even with a p
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DIGITAL FILTERING 511 OUTPUT Fig. 1
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DIGITAL FILTERING 513 INPUT VARIABL
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DIGITAL FILTERING 515 INPUT (C) -(.
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DIGITAL FILTERING 517 NOTE: Xl, Y,
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DIGITAL FILTERING 519 AMPLITUDE, (d
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DIGITAL FILTERING 521 o ~ -10 ~ -20
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DIGITAL FILTERING 523 1.0 0.8 0.6
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DIGITAL FILTERING 525 When the outp
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16 Source-SignalAnalys,is One of th
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SOURCE-SIGNAL ANALYSIS 545 nOdB T I
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SOURCE-SIGNAL ANALYSIS 549 3 IN -"
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SOURCE-SIGNAL ANALYSIS 551 Data Rep
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SOURCE-SIGNAL ANALYSIS 553 SIGNAL B
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SOURCE-SIGNAL ANALYSIS 555 -5° FH
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SOURCE-SIGNAL ANALYSIS 557 -5 -10 ~
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SOURCE-SIGNAL ANALYSIS 559 Since th
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SOURCE-SIGNAL ANALYSIS 561 o -5 -10
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SOURCE-SIGNAL ANALYSIS 563 o -5 -10
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SOURCE-SIGNAL ANALYSIS 565 overlapp
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SOURCE-SIGNAL ANALYSIS 567 • ....
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SOURCE-SIGNAL ANALYSIS 569 from an
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SOURCE-SIGNAL ANALYSIS 571 componen
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SOURCE-SIGNAL ANALYSIS 573 and some
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SOURCE-SIGNAL ANALYSIS 575 185491 A
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SOURCE-SIGNAL ANALYSIS 577 SYSTEM F
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SOURCE-SIGNAL ANALYSIS 579 (AI (BI
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SOURCE-SIGNAL ANALYSIS 581 (Gl II'
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SOURCE-SIGNAL ANALYSIS 583 PULSE PE
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SOURCE-SIGNAL ANALYSIS 585 again, t
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SOURCE-SIGNAL ANALYSIS 587 Quite ob
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17 DigitalHardware At this point, w
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DIGITAL HARDWARE 591 Lsa I N+I DIVI
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DIGITAL HARDWARE 593 (~OCK[ L _ LSB
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DIGITAL HARDWARE 595 FREQUENCY CONT
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DIGITAL HARDWARE 597 Fig. 17-7. Pha
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DIGITAL HARDWARE 599 MOST SIGNIFICA
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DIGITAL HARDWARE 601 waveform chang
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DIGITAL HARDWARE 603 As an example,
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DIGITAL HARDWARE 605 1. Sixteen ind
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DIGITAL HARDWARE 607 discussed, the
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DIGITAL HARDWARE 609 between the 41
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DIGITAL HARDWARE 611 8-BIT PORT I M
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FREOUENCY CONTROL IN I I 20 FREOUEN
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DIGITAL HARDWARE 615 TO MULTIPLEXED
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FREQ. :a.-8 CNTL. WRITE FREQ. I 20
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DIGITAL HARDWARE 619 effective freq
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DIGITAL HARDWARE 621 The signal mem
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DIGITAL HARDWARE 623 into a filter
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DIGITAL HARDWARE 625 made using con
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DIGITAL HARDWARE 627 A Hybrid Voice
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DIGITAL HARDWARE 629 o -5 -10 -15 ~
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DIGITAL HARDWARE 631 o -5 -10 -15 ~
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DIGITAL HARDWARE 633 D3 02 01 10 00
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DIGITAL HARDWARE 635 plementers on
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DIGITAL HARDWARE 637 taken care of
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SECTIONIV ProductApplications andth
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716 MUSICAL ApPLICATIONS OF MJCROPR
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RING MOD VCD A PITCHo--+lcNTL OUT A
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20 Low-CostSYllthesis Techniques Wh
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LOW-COST SYNTHESIS TECHNIQUES 759 g
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LOW-COST SYNTHESIS TECHNIQUES 761 i
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LOW-COST SYNTHESIS TECHNIQUES 763 0
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LOW-COST SYNTHESIS TECHNIQUES 765 S
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LOW-COST SYNTHESIS TECHNIQUES 767 c
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LOW-COST SYNTHESIS TECHNIQUES 769 O
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LOW-COST SYNTHESIS TECHNIQUES 771 +
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LOW-COST SYNTHESIS TECHNIQUES 773 F
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LOW-COST SYNTHESIS TECHNIQUES 775 F
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LOW-COST SYNTHESIS TECHNIQUES 777 f
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21 Future Frequently, when glvmg ta
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LOW-COST SYNTHESIS TECHNIQUES 781 T
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LOW-COST SYNTHESIS TECHNIQUES 783 t
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LOW-COST SYNTHESIS TECHNIQUES 785 "
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LOW-COST SYNTHESIS TECHNIQUES 787 m
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LOW-COST SYNTHESIS TECHNIQUES 789 a
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Bibliography The following publicat
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 793 DMA DOS FET FFT FI
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(Communication) Minor - Computer Sc
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newsletter, writing numerous articl
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conversion subsystem, especially if
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In the beginning the company was su
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HAL : I really haven't kept up with
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was clear he was serious, I named m
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influences too like interrupts from
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SONIK : What activities do you do o
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as a homework assignment. So much o
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