An Ocean Blueprint for the 21st Century - California Ocean ...

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CHAPTER 9MANAGING COASTS ANDTHEIR WATERSHEDSThe pressures of continuing growth are acutely felt in coastal areas. While largelyattributable to activities taking place at the coast, some pressures originate hundredsof miles away in inland watersheds. To more effectively manage coasts, statesneed a stronger capacity to plan for and guide growth—one that incorporatesa watershed approach to govern coastal and ocean resources. In addition,to assist states in such development and support the move toward anecosystem-based management approach, federal area-based coastalprograms should be consolidated to better integrate and capitalize onthe strengths of each. Finally, to reach the goal of economically andenvironmentally sustainable development, changes should be madeto federal programs that currently encourage inappropriategrowth in fragile or hazard-prone areas.Attracting Crowds, Creating OpportunitiesWhile coastal watershed counties comprise less than 25 percentof the land area in the United States, they are home tomore than 52 percent of the total U.S. population (Appendix C).A study of coastal population trends predicts average increases of3,600 people a day moving to coastal counties, reaching a total populationof 165 million by 2015. 1 These figures do not include the 180million people who visit the coast every year. 2Population growth and tourism bring many benefits to coastalcommunities, including new jobs and businesses and enhanced educationalopportunities. Burgeoning industries associated with tourism and recreation incoastal areas (such as hotels, resorts, restaurants, fishing and dive stores, vacationhousing, marinas, and other retail businesses) have created one of the nation’s largestand fastest-growing economic forces (Appendix C).Implications of GrowthThe popularity of ocean and coastal areas intensifies pressures on these environments,creating a number of challenges for managers and decision makers. Increased developmentputs more people and property at risk from coastal hazards (Chapter 10). Everyyear, millions of dollars are spent replenishing sand at the nation’s beaches and protecting150 A N O CEAN B LUEPRINT FOR THE 21ST C ENTURY
Box 9.1 Coastal Activities Are Big BusinessAcross the country, more than 89 million people a year participate in marine-related recreation,such as swimming, scuba diving, surfing, motor boating, sailing, kayaking, andwildlife viewing. i In just four South Florida coastal counties, recreational diving, fishing, andocean-watching activities generate $4.4 billion in local sales and almost $2 billion in localincome annually ii and more than 2.9 million people visit the Florida Keys each year. iii Duringthe summer of 2000, beach activities in Los Angeles and Orange counties stimulated anestimated $1 billion in spending. iv The Hawaiian Islands and many U.S. island territories areparticularly dependent on tourism for their economic health. Hawaii alone attracts some 7million tourists each year. v In 2001, over 8 million people took to the sea aboard cruise ships,and approximately 135 million people visited the nation’s aquariums and zoos. vi,vii Althoughgolf and tennis are recognized as major U.S. industries, it is estimated that more Americansparticipate in recreational fishing than in both of these sports combined. viiii Leeworthy, V.R., and P.C. Wiley. Current Participation Patterns in Marine Recreation. Silver Spring, MD: NationalOceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2001.ii Johns, G.M., et al. Socioeconomic Study of Reefs in Southeast Florida. Silver Spring, MD: National Oceanic andAtmospheric Administration, 2001.iii Leeworthy, V.R., and P. Vanasse. Economic Contribution of Recreating Visitors to the Florida Keys/Key West: Updatesfor Years 1996-97 and 1997-98. Silver Spring, MD: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1999.iv Hanemann, M., L. Pendleton, and D. Layton. Summary Report on the Beach Expenditure Module. Southern CaliforniaBeach Valuation Project. Silver Spring, MD: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2001.v Cesar, H., et al. Economic Valuation of the Coral Reefs of Hawaii: Final Report (FY 2001–2002). Hawaii Coral ReefInitiative Research Program. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and University of Hawaii, 2002.vi International Council of Cruise Lines. The Cruise Industry: A Partner in North America’s Economic Growth. Arlington,VA, 2001.vii American Zoo and Aquarium Association. “The Collective Impact of America's Zoos and Aquariums.” Accessed January 28, 2004.viii American Sportfishing Association. Sportfishing in America: Values of Our Traditional Pastime. Alexandria, VA, 2002.coastal property from storms, waves, and erosion. Rising sea level exacerbates the damageto beaches and wetlands. The growth in development, coupled with greater protection forsensitive coastal habitats, also makes it increasingly difficult to maintain public access tobeaches and coastal waters for swimming, fishing, and boating.Poorly planned growth reduces and fragments fish and wildlife habitat (Chapter 11)and can alter sedimentation rates and flows (Chapter 12). It is also well understood thatgrowth in coastal areas contributes to water pollution (Chapter 14), with impacts onfishing, swimming, and many other recreational and economic activities. One of the mostserious impacts on ocean and coastal areas is the increasing amount of polluted runofffrom urban, suburban, and agricultural areas, which is exacerbated by increases in impervioussurfaces, such as roads, parking lots, sidewalks, and rooftops. Some evidence indicatesthat ecosystem health may be seriously impaired when the impervious area in awatershed reaches 10 percent, particularly in the absence of mitigating factors, such as ahigh percentage of wetlands or forest cover in the watershed, or urban stormwater bestmanagement practices such as riparian buffers along streams. If current coastal growthtrends continue, many more watersheds will cross the 10 percent threshold over the nexttwenty-five years. 3Although the rate of population growth in coastal counties is not greater than in otherareas of the country, the sheer number of people being added to fixed coastal land areas,combined with the fragile nature of coastal resources, create disproportionate impacts(Appendix C). In many cases, these impacts are destroying the very qualities that drawpeople to the coast.C HAPTER 9: MANAGING C OASTS AND THEIR WATERSHEDS151
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FINAL REPORTAN OCEAN BLUEPRINTFOR T
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THE UNITED STATES IS AN OCEAN NATIO
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Page 2—The Presidentocean educati
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Page 2—The Honorable William H. F
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Page 2—The Honorable J. Dennis Ha
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SCIENCE ADVISORY PANELDonald F. Boe
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COMMISSION STAFFThomas KitsosExecut
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Robert Richmond, Robert Ross, Amy S
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CHAPTER 3SETTING THE NATION’S SIG
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PART IVLIVING ON THE EDGE: ECONOMIC
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Periodic Review and Modification...
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Expanding Research and Education ..
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CHAPTER 26ACHIEVING A SUSTAINED, IN
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Index to the Recommendations ......
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LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLESFigure 1.
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LIST OF BOXESBox 1.1 Defining Coast
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PHOTOGRAPH IDENTIFICATIONAND CREDIT
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The Value of the Oceans and CoastsA
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The message from both experts and t
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Guiding PrinciplesThe Commission be
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appropriate national policies, and
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Based on an improved understanding
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Figure ES.5 Many Different Platform
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Figure ES.6 U.S. Students Fall Behi
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ciated with coastal population and
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To ensure good coordination, the In
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liferation of federal and state pro
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Preserving Coral Reefs and Other Co
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pation of all ocean-related federal
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also produce revenues in time, and
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CHAPTER 1RECOGNIZING OCEAN ASSETSAN
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Figure 1.2 The Value of the CoastsJ
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Box 1.1 Defining Coastal AreasThe c
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Figure 1.4 The Shift from Goods to
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Box 1.2 The “Fourth Seacoast”
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chemicals tend to bind to particles
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coastal watershed counties grew by
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One of the most immediate phenomena
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30 Fleming, L.E., et al. “The Epi
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CHAPTER 2UNDERSTANDING THE PASTTO S
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ments. The Navy’s ocean data hold
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The legislation was prompted by the
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The architects of ocean-related pro
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Congress on ocean and coastal issue
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Figure 2.1 Invited Panelists Repres
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CHAPTER 3SETTING THE NATION’S SIG
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USCOP File PhotoThe Commission’s
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Figure 3.1 Large Marine Ecosystems
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damage is also high, managers shoul
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Figure 3.2 The Foundations of a New
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PRIMER ON OCEAN JURISDICTIONS:DRAWI
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The Territorial Sea (0 to 12 Nautic
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PART 2BLUEPRINT FOR CHANGE:A NEW NA
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Government agencies work on these a
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Recommendation 4-1Congress should e
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• reach out to state, territorial
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Figure 4.2 Proposed Structure for C
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References1 National Research Counc
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significant initiative by federal a
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The California Bay-Delta Authority
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Box 5.2 Nature and Functions of Reg
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Box 5.3 Moving Toward Improved Fede
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data collection efforts are essenti
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CHAPTER 6COORDINATING MANAGEMENTIN
Page 138 and 139: nisms for managing new ocean uses.
Page 140 and 141: sure that disputes are resolved and
Page 142 and 143: Reserve System, which is made up of
Page 144: Regional and Local StakeholdersPart
Page 147 and 148: Reviewing Previous Reorganization P
Page 149 and 150: Box 7.1 Improving Ocean and Coastal
Page 151 and 152: Box 7.2 Federal Ocean and Coastal A
Page 153 and 154: Box 7.3 Historical Precedent for Pr
Page 155 and 156: Table 7.1 (continued) Thirty Years
Page 159 and 160: PART 3OCEAN STEWARDSHIP:THE IMPORTA
Page 161 and 162: Ocean StewardshipTo successfully ad
Page 163 and 164: Therefore, the interaction and invo
Page 165 and 166: NOPP’s Ocean Research Advisory Pa
Page 167 and 168: Recommendation 8-4Ocean.ED should d
Page 169 and 170: Figure 8.2 U.S. Students Fall Behin
Page 171 and 172: Bridging the Gap between Scientists
Page 173 and 174: Recommendation 8-8Ocean.ED, working
Page 175 and 176: creativity that has expanded our un
Page 177 and 178: Recommendation 8-11Ocean.ED should
Page 179 and 180: Recommendation 8-14The National Sci
Page 181 and 182: Box 8.5 What Is Informal Education?
Page 183 and 184: to reach desired outcomes. While fe
Page 187: PART 4L IVING ON THE E DGE:E CONOMI
Page 191 and 192: state and local decision making, so
Page 193 and 194: • goals—State coastal managemen
Page 195 and 196: Other Relevant Federal ProgramsIn a
Page 197 and 198: forward. An applicant can appeal su
Page 199 and 200: References1 Culliton, T.J. Populati
Page 201 and 202: Improving Federal Managementof Haza
Page 203 and 204: Box 10.2 New Orleans at RiskPrior t
Page 205 and 206: Dave Gatley/FEMA News PhotoHomes bu
Page 207 and 208: that develop excellent mitigation p
Page 209 and 210: tal and human disturbances such as
Page 211 and 212: PhotolinkCoastal habitats provide e
Page 213 and 214: Restoration efforts have intensifie
Page 215 and 216: Box 11.2 A Community Habitat Restor
Page 217 and 218: Although it has shown some success
Page 219 and 220: Box 12.1 Sediment: Friend or Foe?Se
Page 221 and 222: Changing Sediment QualityOver the l
Page 223 and 224: One of the difficulties in undertak
Page 225 and 226: Beneficial Uses of Dredged Material
Page 227 and 228: The National Shoreline Management S
Page 230 and 231: CHAPTER 13SUPPORTING MARINE COMMERC
Page 232 and 233: Figure 13.1 Ports Are the Primary G
Page 234 and 235: Harbors, Channels, and WaterwaysThe
Page 236 and 237: Recommendation 13-2Congress should
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Recommendation 13-5The U.S. Departm
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PART VC LEAR WATERS A HEAD:C OASTAL
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Figure 14.1 Report Card on Regional
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sources, such as industrial facilit
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meet water quality goals. Decisions
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Animal Feeding OperationsMany anima
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nants over land, into streams and g
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Major Nonpoint SourcesThe majority
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USCOP File PhotoUSCOP File PhotoAs
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Expanding Uses of State Revolving F
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Recommendation 14-11The U.S. Enviro
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assisting in the implementation of
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References1 U.S. Environmental Prot
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Box 15.1 Ocean and Coastal Monitori
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EPA’s Environmental Monitoring an
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local, and municipal governments, w
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System DesignSampling protocols are
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Making Data Accessible and UsefulA
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and 75 percent of cargo ships opera
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Although many flag states take thei
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Reducing Vessel PollutionStrengthen
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Recommendation 16-5Congress should
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Voluntary actions can provide a use
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Figure 16.2 The Oil Pollution Act C
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developing new regulatory and non-r
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25 Ibid.26 Center for Environmental
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Box 17.1 What Is an Invasive Specie
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Figure 17.2 Addressing Aquatic Inva
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Global Trade in Marine OrganismsHum
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Recommendation 17-4The National Oce
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tant for ballast water, coordinated
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10 U.S. General Accounting Office.
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each in the entire world. 3 A study
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Research Program), directed by NOAA
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established simply on the basis of
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References1 U.S. Department of Comm
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CHAPTER 19ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLEFISH
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Figure 19.1 Fishery LitigationGrows
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While determining allowable biologi
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Although the Secretary of Commerce
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platforms to expand the scope of da
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Figure 19.3 Migratory Fish RequireC
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majority of RFMC members, may tend
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entrants to a fishery. However, the
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NOAA Photo LibraryEnforcement Partn
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The cost of VMS for fishing vessel
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Ecosystem-based management will als
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Recommendation 19-21The National Ma
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• Major government subsidies aime
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oad regions of the seas, the existi
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References1 U.S. Commission on Mari
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fishing line because they are not a
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Reviewing Authorities and Responsib
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The division of endangered species
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PhotolinkHumans love to observe mar
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Although not always caused by human
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Box 20.1 Making a Case for Ecosyste
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9 Flint, E. and Swift, K. eds. Seco
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Figure 21.1 Tropical Waters Are Hom
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appear to be exacerbating other cor
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task force are the U.S. Department
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exploitation by strictly regulating
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CHAPTER 22SETTING A COURSE FORSUSTA
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which are widespread in European sa
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cies, and provides recommendations
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Promoting International Improvement
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tissues of fish and shellfish. When
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Box 23.1 Special Focus on Microbial
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Figure 23.1 Harmful Algal Blooms on
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waters used for drinking and public
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The FDA is responsible for ensuring
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over control of offshore waters. On
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Figure 24.1 Offshore Oil and Gas Le
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Trends in Domestic Offshore Oil and
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Table 24.1 Federal Revenues from Of
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State Involvement in OCS Oil and Ga
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Figure 24.3 Oil Inputs to theNorth
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The estimated amount of natural gas
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Box 24.3 A Mighty Wind Blows in Cap
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commercial recovery, including offs
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PART VIIS CIENCE- BASED D ECISIONS:
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hydrologic, and atmospheric systems
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down about one-half of the highly-r
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ocean temperature can put the healt
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Natural Hazards• basic understand
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ating valuable information, includi
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The National Sea Grant College Prog
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The Value of Ocean ExplorationAbout
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Box 25.2 Primary Federal Agencies t
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Recommendation 25-7The Federal Geog
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CHAPTER 26ACHIEVING A SUSTAINED,INT
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An integrated ocean and coastal obs
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nation’s coastal and marine resou
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One obvious application of the obse
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Recommendation 26-5Ocean.US should
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Recommendation 26-7Ocean.US should
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Box 26.3 The National Weather Servi
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Box 26.4 An Investment with Big Ret
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Islands, and Palau). Examples of ca
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This chapter does not attempt to pr
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Furthermore, while some facilities
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University of Hawaii Marine CenterT
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cost of approximately $5 million; a
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communication capabilities are also
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A Coast Guard cutter and helicopter
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surface temperature measurements, a
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References1 Office of Technology As
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Box 28.1 Data Management Terminolog
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to gather and integrate data from s
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Figure 28.2 The Growing Demand for
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• coordinate federal agency effor
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Recommendation 28-3Ocean.IT should
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PART VIIITHE GLOBAL OCEAN:U.S. PART
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intergovernmental cooperation, and
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the LOS Convention are in the proce
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Table 29.1 (continued) U.S. Partici
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Meeting International ObligationsAl
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Box 29.1 Selected International Bod
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International Ocean Science Program
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Box 29.2 U.S. Involvement in Intern
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CHAPTER 30FUNDING NEEDS ANDPOSSIBLE
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Table 30.1 Summary of Costs Associa
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Table 30.1 (continued) Summary of C
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also require federal support to bec
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Other Ocean and Coastal Management
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Chapter 24 also addresses the poten
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Nevertheless, the need remains for
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• Multiple Use Management: The ma
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Index to the RecommendationsThe fol
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Department of DefenseArmy Corps of
Page 517 and 518:
Recommendations to Regional BodiesR
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• expand education and outreach e
Page 521 and 522:
Chapter 5: Advancing a Regional App
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Chapter 7: Strengthening the Federa
Page 525 and 526:
• expanding the reach of each cen
Page 527 and 528:
Recommendation 8-15The Office of Na
Page 529 and 530:
Page 531 and 532:
Recommendation 12-4The National Dre
Page 533 and 534:
Chapter 14: Addressing Coastal Wate
Page 535 and 536:
Recommendation 14-12The U.S. Enviro
Page 537 and 538:
Recommendation 16-6The U.S. Environ
Page 539 and 540:
Recommendation 17-5The National Inv
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• the National Oceanic and Atmosp
Page 543 and 544:
Page 545 and 546:
Recommendation 19-21The National Ma
Page 547 and 548:
Page 549 and 550:
Chapter 22: Setting a Course for Su
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• work with the National Ocean Co
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• an interagency steering group,
Page 555 and 556:
Page 557 and 558:
Page 559 and 560:
Chapter 29: Advancing International
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PART XA PPENDICESAPPENDIX AOCEANS A
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One Hundred Sixth CongressOf theUni
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(e) MEETINGS—(1) ADMINISTRATION
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Section 5. Biennial ReportBeginning
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ACRONYMS APPEARING IN THE REPORTAAA
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APPENDIX CLIVING NEAR…AND MAKINGA
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growing much faster. The region nea
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2. DEFINING THE COASTWhat is meant
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almost doubled in population over t
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4. THE COASTAL AND OCEANECONOMY OF
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Figure C.5 Changes in the Ocean Eco
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Figure C.7 Regional Distribution of
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5. THE COASTAL AND OCEANECONOMY BEY
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6. IMPLICATIONSThe changes in the c
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7. THE FUTURE OF UNDERSTANDINGTHE C
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Table C.1 Population Change in the
Page 597 and 598:
Table C.4 Population Growth by Coas
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REFERENCESApogee Research and Resou
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NOTES1 “Counties” in this conte
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SECTION 3OCEAN AND COASTAL-RELATED
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SECTION 1PURPOSE OF THIS GLOSSARYTh
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Council on Environmental QualityCre
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SECTION 3OCEAN AND COASTAL-RELATEDF
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Comprehensive Environmental Respons
Page 614 and 615:
Marine Plastic Pollution Researchan
Page 616 and 617:
Outer Continental Shelf Lands ActTh
Page 618 and 619:
Clean Water Act—National EstuaryP
Page 620 and 621:
Farm Bill Conservation ProgramsCong
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APPENDIX EP ROPOSED S TRUCTURE FORC
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APPENDIX FC ONGRESSIONAL C OMMITTEE
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Table F.1 Congressional Committees
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Committee on Transportation and Inf
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Detailed Costs Associated with Reco
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Page 638 and 639:
Page 640 and 641:
Page 642 and 643:
Page 644 and 645:
Page 646 and 647:
INDEXacademic/academia, 260aquacult
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federal area-based programs,34, 150
Page 650 and 651:
integration of multiplesources, 234
Page 652 and 653:
programmatic permitting,312-314prot
Page 654 and 655:
coordination and cooperationin, 100
Page 656 and 657:
Department of Educationinitiative,
Page 658 and 659:
invasive species, 252-263aquacultur
Page 660 and 661:
common heritage of mankind,53deep s
Page 662 and 663:
monitoring programs, 228,230, 231,
Page 664 and 665:
jurisdiction issues, 72, 454nationa
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Mid-Atlantic, 276, 278, 288mission,
Page 668 and 669:
single-hull vessel phase-outs,54, 2
Page 670 and 671:
Service, 215, 260Economic Research
Page 672:
pharmaceuticals and antibiotics,209
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