An Ocean Blueprint for the 21st Century - California Ocean ...

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR ANDACKNOWLEDGMENTSCharles S. Colgan is Professor of Public Policy andManagement in the Edmund S. Muskie School ofPublic Service at the University of Southern Maine.He is also Associate Director of the USM Center forBusiness and Economic Research. He serves as ChiefEconomist of the National Ocean Economics Project.Prior to joining the University of Southern Maine heserved with the Maine State Planning Office, wherehe was a Director and Treasurer of the Coastal StatesOrganization. He served on the Outer ContinentalShelf Policy Committee of the Department of theInterior from 1977–1986.Comments on earlier drafts of this paper wereprovided by Tom Kitsos and Peter Hill of the OceanCommission Staff, Dr. Linwood Pendleton of theUniversity of Wyoming, Dr. Karen Polenske of theMassachusetts Institute of Technology, Dr. MichaelHanemann of the University of California-Berkeley,and Dr. Rodney Weiher, Chief Economist of theNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.Dr. Judith Kildow of California State University-Monterey Bay and Principal Investigator of theNational Ocean Economics Project coordinated theoverall research project.The fundamental research into the ocean andcoastal economy is funded primarily by the CoastalServices Center, National Ocean Service, NationalOceanic and Atmospheric Administration. MargaretDavidson, the Director of the Coastal ServicesCenter, has provided the assistance required to sustainthe research.The Bureau of Labor Statistics Office ofEmployment and Unemployment Statistics has providedaccess to its data files in order to build theunique data sets used in the project under theirResearch Fellowship Program. Richard Clayton,David Tallan, and Amy Knaup of OEUS have providedmuch assistance in creating and managing thedata sets.C 26A N O CEAN B LUEPRINT FOR THE 21ST C ENTURY
NOTES1 “Counties” in this context includes not only political jurisdictionsthat function as counties, including parishes in Louisiana and boroughsin Alaska. It also includes Census-designated areas in somestates. These are areas defined by the Census bureau as sub-stateregions for statistical purposes even though there is no governmentalfunction. Counties in Connecticut, Rhode Island, andMassachusetts, along with some regions in Alaska fall into thiscategory. In Virginia, independent cities, which have functions tosimilar to counties, but are not classified as counties under statelaw, are included when they fall within defined coastal areas.2 Boundaries of coastal zone are provided by the Office of CoastalResource Management, NOAA.3 The four states which define the entire state as the coastal zoneare Florida, Rhode Island, Delaware, and Hawaii.4 Examples of states using county boundaries include Washington,South Carolina, Mississippi, and North Carolina. States usingmunicipal boundaries include Maine and Connecticut. In NewYork, the coastal zone includes counties along the Hudson Riveras far north as Albany, as well as counties along both theAtlantic and Great Lakes coasts. Pennsylvania defines its coastalzone only along Lake Erie and not along the Delaware River. Inthis analysis, Cook County Illinois is included in the coastal zonecounty definition, although Illinois does not participate in theCZM program to provide complete coverage of the nation.5 This figure is based on the decennial census, which measurespopulation on April 1 of the year. It does not include seasonalpeak populations, which can be orders of magnitude higher in anumber of coastal regions.6 The Atlantic region is defined as coastal zone and coastal watershedcounties from Washington County, Maine to Miami-DadeCounty, Florida, including the Chesapeake Bay counties ofMaryland and Virginia. New York counties exclude counties onthe Hudson River, beginning with New York County. MonroeCounty, Florida is counted in the Gulf of Mexico region. ThePacific region includes Hawaii and Alaska. Cook county isincluded in Illinois in the coastal zone definition, althoughIllinois does not participate in the CZM program.7 For purposes of defining urban and rural, the Urban InfluenceCodes of the Department of Agriculture’s Economic ResearchService are used. These codes define counties as urban or ruralbased on the population of the largest city or town, the locationwithin a Census-defined metropolitan area, and the adjacency ofthe county to largest central city (if in a metro area) or to ametro area. For more information, seehttp://www.ers.usda.gov/briefing/rurality/UrbanInf/.8 “Large community” is defined as a population in 1990 of 20,000or more.9 There have been periodic attempts over the past three decadesto define an ocean economy, beginning in the 1970’s when theBureau of Economic Analysis sponsored the first estimation ofthe “ocean economy”. This work was updated by PontecorvoSee Pontecorvo, G., M. Wilkinson, et al. (1980). “Contribution ofof the Ocean Sector to the U.S. Economy.” Science 208(30):1000–1006.}and extended somewhat in a later study of thecoastal economy by Luger See Luger, M. (1991). “The EconomicValue of the Coastal Zone.” Environmental Systems 21(4):278–301.A number of state and regional agencies have undertakenstudies of local coastal economies in order to betterunderstand the role of the ocean and coasts in their areas (e.g.Colgan, C. S. and J. Plumstead (1993). Economic Prospects for theGulf of Maine. Augusta, ME, Gulf of Maine Council on theMarine Environment, Moller, R. and J. Fitz (1997). California’sOcean Resources: An Agenda for the Future. Sacramento CA,California Resources Agency.).10 The National Ocean Economics Project is funded by NOAA andEPA. It involves researchers at the University of SouthernCalifornia, University of Vermont, and University of SouthernMaine. For more information see www.oceaneconomics.org11 Establishments are “places of business”, not firms. A firm mayoperate many establishments. Employment is defined as wageand salary employment in industries covered by the unemploymentinsurance laws. This definition excludes self employment,many of the employees in the railroad industry (who are coveredunder a separate federal statute), and farm employment. It alsoexcludes harvesting sector employment in the fisheries. The LivingResources sector excludes harvesting sector employment, which isnot collected nationally. Data for 1990 and 2000 are the only twoyears for which data on the ocean economy is currently available.12 Wage and salary jobs. Source: Bureau of Economic Analysis.13 Government employment is measured as total employment ingovernment agencies and does not differentiate by type of function.Thus it is not possible to distinguish ocean related fromnon-ocean related government activities. Marine science organizationsare, for the most part, separately reported from otherscience and research organizations and universities.14 Measured as farm proprietors. Source: BEA.15 Defined as two-digit SIC classifications.16 The cruise ship industry is also poorly measured in the economicstatistics. The cruise ships themselves are foreign owned and foreigncrewed thus do not show up in the U.S. gross state productfigures. The principal measure of the cruise ship industry is thusthe shore-side employment of support organizations who providefood, fuel, and other services. Consumer expenditures oncruise ships are measured in the gross domestic product withinoverall consumption, but cannot be separated out in this analysisof production.17 Employment in the harvesting sector of the commercial fishingindustry is not included in any government statistics programsbecause this industry is excluded from the unemployment insurancelaws. Occasional estimates of harvesting employment havebeen made for various fisheries and regions, but there is no regularmeasurement of employment in this sector.18 Tour boats should more properly be counted under tourism andrecreation, and some are. But the SIC system does not separateferry services from tour boats if the establishment is classified aswaterborne passenger transportation.19 Metro and nonmetro are based on the 1990 designation ofcounties. The distribution by the size of the Urban InfluenceCodes of the U.S. Department of Agriculture Economic ResearchService. See http://www.ers.usda.gov/briefing/rurality/UrbanInf/.20 A number of federal laws, including the Clean Water Act, theComprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, andLiability Act, and the National Marine Sanctuaries Act requirethat economic damages from events such as oil spills beassessed.21 The economic term is consumer surplus, the value representedby what one would be willing to pay to use a beach less whatsomeone actually pays to use the beach.A PPENDIX C: LIVING N EAR… AND M AKING A L IVING F ROM…THE N ATION’ S C OASTS AND O CEANS C 27
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FINAL REPORTAN OCEAN BLUEPRINTFOR T
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THE UNITED STATES IS AN OCEAN NATIO
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Page 2—The Presidentocean educati
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Page 2—The Honorable William H. F
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Page 2—The Honorable J. Dennis Ha
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SCIENCE ADVISORY PANELDonald F. Boe
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COMMISSION STAFFThomas KitsosExecut
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Robert Richmond, Robert Ross, Amy S
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CHAPTER 3SETTING THE NATION’S SIG
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PART IVLIVING ON THE EDGE: ECONOMIC
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Periodic Review and Modification...
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Expanding Research and Education ..
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CHAPTER 26ACHIEVING A SUSTAINED, IN
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Index to the Recommendations ......
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LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLESFigure 1.
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LIST OF BOXESBox 1.1 Defining Coast
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PHOTOGRAPH IDENTIFICATIONAND CREDIT
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The Value of the Oceans and CoastsA
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The message from both experts and t
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Guiding PrinciplesThe Commission be
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appropriate national policies, and
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Based on an improved understanding
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Figure ES.5 Many Different Platform
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Figure ES.6 U.S. Students Fall Behi
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ciated with coastal population and
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To ensure good coordination, the In
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liferation of federal and state pro
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Preserving Coral Reefs and Other Co
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pation of all ocean-related federal
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also produce revenues in time, and
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CHAPTER 1RECOGNIZING OCEAN ASSETSAN
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Figure 1.2 The Value of the CoastsJ
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Box 1.1 Defining Coastal AreasThe c
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Figure 1.4 The Shift from Goods to
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Box 1.2 The “Fourth Seacoast”
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chemicals tend to bind to particles
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coastal watershed counties grew by
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One of the most immediate phenomena
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30 Fleming, L.E., et al. “The Epi
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CHAPTER 2UNDERSTANDING THE PASTTO S
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ments. The Navy’s ocean data hold
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The legislation was prompted by the
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The architects of ocean-related pro
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Congress on ocean and coastal issue
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Figure 2.1 Invited Panelists Repres
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CHAPTER 3SETTING THE NATION’S SIG
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USCOP File PhotoThe Commission’s
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Figure 3.1 Large Marine Ecosystems
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damage is also high, managers shoul
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Figure 3.2 The Foundations of a New
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PRIMER ON OCEAN JURISDICTIONS:DRAWI
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The Territorial Sea (0 to 12 Nautic
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PART 2BLUEPRINT FOR CHANGE:A NEW NA
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Government agencies work on these a
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Recommendation 4-1Congress should e
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• reach out to state, territorial
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Figure 4.2 Proposed Structure for C
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References1 National Research Counc
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significant initiative by federal a
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The California Bay-Delta Authority
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Box 5.2 Nature and Functions of Reg
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Box 5.3 Moving Toward Improved Fede
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data collection efforts are essenti
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CHAPTER 6COORDINATING MANAGEMENTIN
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nisms for managing new ocean uses.
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sure that disputes are resolved and
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Reserve System, which is made up of
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Regional and Local StakeholdersPart
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Reviewing Previous Reorganization P
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Box 7.1 Improving Ocean and Coastal
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Box 7.2 Federal Ocean and Coastal A
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Box 7.3 Historical Precedent for Pr
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Table 7.1 (continued) Thirty Years
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PART 3OCEAN STEWARDSHIP:THE IMPORTA
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Ocean StewardshipTo successfully ad
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Therefore, the interaction and invo
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NOPP’s Ocean Research Advisory Pa
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Recommendation 8-4Ocean.ED should d
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Figure 8.2 U.S. Students Fall Behin
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Bridging the Gap between Scientists
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Recommendation 8-8Ocean.ED, working
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creativity that has expanded our un
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Recommendation 8-11Ocean.ED should
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Recommendation 8-14The National Sci
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Box 8.5 What Is Informal Education?
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to reach desired outcomes. While fe
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PART 4L IVING ON THE E DGE:E CONOMI
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Box 9.1 Coastal Activities Are Big
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state and local decision making, so
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• goals—State coastal managemen
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Other Relevant Federal ProgramsIn a
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forward. An applicant can appeal su
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References1 Culliton, T.J. Populati
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Improving Federal Managementof Haza
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Box 10.2 New Orleans at RiskPrior t
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Dave Gatley/FEMA News PhotoHomes bu
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that develop excellent mitigation p
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tal and human disturbances such as
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PhotolinkCoastal habitats provide e
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Restoration efforts have intensifie
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Box 11.2 A Community Habitat Restor
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Although it has shown some success
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Box 12.1 Sediment: Friend or Foe?Se
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Changing Sediment QualityOver the l
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One of the difficulties in undertak
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Beneficial Uses of Dredged Material
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The National Shoreline Management S
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CHAPTER 13SUPPORTING MARINE COMMERC
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Figure 13.1 Ports Are the Primary G
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Harbors, Channels, and WaterwaysThe
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Recommendation 13-2Congress should
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Recommendation 13-5The U.S. Departm
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PART VC LEAR WATERS A HEAD:C OASTAL
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Figure 14.1 Report Card on Regional
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sources, such as industrial facilit
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meet water quality goals. Decisions
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Animal Feeding OperationsMany anima
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nants over land, into streams and g
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Major Nonpoint SourcesThe majority
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USCOP File PhotoUSCOP File PhotoAs
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Expanding Uses of State Revolving F
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Recommendation 14-11The U.S. Enviro
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assisting in the implementation of
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References1 U.S. Environmental Prot
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Box 15.1 Ocean and Coastal Monitori
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EPA’s Environmental Monitoring an
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local, and municipal governments, w
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System DesignSampling protocols are
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Making Data Accessible and UsefulA
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and 75 percent of cargo ships opera
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Although many flag states take thei
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Reducing Vessel PollutionStrengthen
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Voluntary actions can provide a use
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Figure 16.2 The Oil Pollution Act C
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developing new regulatory and non-r
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25 Ibid.26 Center for Environmental
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Box 17.1 What Is an Invasive Specie
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Figure 17.2 Addressing Aquatic Inva
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Global Trade in Marine OrganismsHum
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Recommendation 17-4The National Oce
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tant for ballast water, coordinated
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10 U.S. General Accounting Office.
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each in the entire world. 3 A study
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Research Program), directed by NOAA
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established simply on the basis of
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References1 U.S. Department of Comm
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CHAPTER 19ACHIEVING SUSTAINABLEFISH
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Figure 19.1 Fishery LitigationGrows
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While determining allowable biologi
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Although the Secretary of Commerce
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platforms to expand the scope of da
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Figure 19.3 Migratory Fish RequireC
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majority of RFMC members, may tend
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entrants to a fishery. However, the
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NOAA Photo LibraryEnforcement Partn
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The cost of VMS for fishing vessel
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Ecosystem-based management will als
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Recommendation 19-21The National Ma
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• Major government subsidies aime
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oad regions of the seas, the existi
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References1 U.S. Commission on Mari
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fishing line because they are not a
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Reviewing Authorities and Responsib
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The division of endangered species
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PhotolinkHumans love to observe mar
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Although not always caused by human
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Box 20.1 Making a Case for Ecosyste
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9 Flint, E. and Swift, K. eds. Seco
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Figure 21.1 Tropical Waters Are Hom
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appear to be exacerbating other cor
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task force are the U.S. Department
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exploitation by strictly regulating
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CHAPTER 22SETTING A COURSE FORSUSTA
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which are widespread in European sa
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cies, and provides recommendations
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Promoting International Improvement
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tissues of fish and shellfish. When
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Box 23.1 Special Focus on Microbial
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Page 383 and 384:
Figure 23.1 Harmful Algal Blooms on
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waters used for drinking and public
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The FDA is responsible for ensuring
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Page 391 and 392:
over control of offshore waters. On
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Figure 24.1 Offshore Oil and Gas Le
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Trends in Domestic Offshore Oil and
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Table 24.1 Federal Revenues from Of
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State Involvement in OCS Oil and Ga
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Figure 24.3 Oil Inputs to theNorth
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The estimated amount of natural gas
Page 405 and 406:
Box 24.3 A Mighty Wind Blows in Cap
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commercial recovery, including offs
Page 411 and 412:
PART VIIS CIENCE- BASED D ECISIONS:
Page 413 and 414:
hydrologic, and atmospheric systems
Page 415 and 416:
down about one-half of the highly-r
Page 417 and 418:
ocean temperature can put the healt
Page 419 and 420:
Natural Hazards• basic understand
Page 421 and 422:
ating valuable information, includi
Page 423 and 424:
The National Sea Grant College Prog
Page 425 and 426:
The Value of Ocean ExplorationAbout
Page 427 and 428:
Box 25.2 Primary Federal Agencies t
Page 429 and 430:
Recommendation 25-7The Federal Geog
Page 432 and 433:
CHAPTER 26ACHIEVING A SUSTAINED,INT
Page 434 and 435:
An integrated ocean and coastal obs
Page 436 and 437:
nation’s coastal and marine resou
Page 438 and 439:
One obvious application of the obse
Page 440 and 441:
Recommendation 26-5Ocean.US should
Page 442 and 443:
Recommendation 26-7Ocean.US should
Page 444 and 445:
Box 26.3 The National Weather Servi
Page 446 and 447:
Box 26.4 An Investment with Big Ret
Page 448:
Islands, and Palau). Examples of ca
Page 451 and 452:
This chapter does not attempt to pr
Page 453 and 454:
Furthermore, while some facilities
Page 455 and 456:
University of Hawaii Marine CenterT
Page 457 and 458:
cost of approximately $5 million; a
Page 459 and 460:
communication capabilities are also
Page 461 and 462:
A Coast Guard cutter and helicopter
Page 463 and 464:
surface temperature measurements, a
Page 465 and 466:
References1 Office of Technology As
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Box 28.1 Data Management Terminolog
Page 469 and 470:
to gather and integrate data from s
Page 471 and 472:
Figure 28.2 The Growing Demand for
Page 473 and 474:
• coordinate federal agency effor
Page 475 and 476:
Recommendation 28-3Ocean.IT should
Page 479 and 480:
PART VIIITHE GLOBAL OCEAN:U.S. PART
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intergovernmental cooperation, and
Page 483 and 484:
the LOS Convention are in the proce
Page 485 and 486:
Table 29.1 (continued) U.S. Partici
Page 487 and 488:
Meeting International ObligationsAl
Page 489 and 490:
Box 29.1 Selected International Bod
Page 491 and 492:
International Ocean Science Program
Page 493:
Box 29.2 U.S. Involvement in Intern
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CHAPTER 30FUNDING NEEDS ANDPOSSIBLE
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Table 30.1 Summary of Costs Associa
Page 500 and 501:
Table 30.1 (continued) Summary of C
Page 502 and 503:
also require federal support to bec
Page 504 and 505:
Other Ocean and Coastal Management
Page 506 and 507:
Chapter 24 also addresses the poten
Page 508:
Nevertheless, the need remains for
Page 511 and 512:
• Multiple Use Management: The ma
Page 513 and 514:
Index to the RecommendationsThe fol
Page 515 and 516:
Department of DefenseArmy Corps of
Page 517 and 518:
Recommendations to Regional BodiesR
Page 519 and 520:
• expand education and outreach e
Page 521 and 522:
Chapter 5: Advancing a Regional App
Page 523 and 524:
Chapter 7: Strengthening the Federa
Page 525 and 526:
• expanding the reach of each cen
Page 527 and 528:
Recommendation 8-15The Office of Na
Page 529 and 530:
Page 531 and 532:
Recommendation 12-4The National Dre
Page 533 and 534:
Chapter 14: Addressing Coastal Wate
Page 535 and 536:
Recommendation 14-12The U.S. Enviro
Page 537 and 538:
Recommendation 16-6The U.S. Environ
Page 539 and 540:
Recommendation 17-5The National Inv
Page 541 and 542:
• the National Oceanic and Atmosp
Page 543 and 544:
Page 545 and 546:
Recommendation 19-21The National Ma
Page 547 and 548:
Page 549 and 550: Chapter 22: Setting a Course for Su
Page 551 and 552: • work with the National Ocean Co
Page 553 and 554: • an interagency steering group,
Page 555 and 556: Recommendation 26-6The National Oce
Page 557 and 558: Recommendation 27-4Congress should
Page 559 and 560: Chapter 29: Advancing International
Page 563: PART XA PPENDICESAPPENDIX AOCEANS A
Page 566 and 567: One Hundred Sixth CongressOf theUni
Page 568 and 569: (e) MEETINGS—(1) ADMINISTRATION
Page 570 and 571: Section 5. Biennial ReportBeginning
Page 572 and 573: ACRONYMS APPEARING IN THE REPORTAAA
Page 575 and 576: APPENDIX CLIVING NEAR…AND MAKINGA
Page 577 and 578: growing much faster. The region nea
Page 579 and 580: 2. DEFINING THE COASTWhat is meant
Page 581 and 582: almost doubled in population over t
Page 583 and 584: 4. THE COASTAL AND OCEANECONOMY OF
Page 585 and 586: Figure C.5 Changes in the Ocean Eco
Page 587 and 588: Figure C.7 Regional Distribution of
Page 589 and 590: 5. THE COASTAL AND OCEANECONOMY BEY
Page 591 and 592: 6. IMPLICATIONSThe changes in the c
Page 593 and 594: 7. THE FUTURE OF UNDERSTANDINGTHE C
Page 595 and 596: Table C.1 Population Change in the
Page 597 and 598: Table C.4 Population Growth by Coas
Page 599: REFERENCESApogee Research and Resou
Page 604 and 605: SECTION 3OCEAN AND COASTAL-RELATED
Page 606 and 607: SECTION 1PURPOSE OF THIS GLOSSARYTh
Page 608 and 609: Council on Environmental QualityCre
Page 610 and 611: SECTION 3OCEAN AND COASTAL-RELATEDF
Page 612 and 613: Comprehensive Environmental Respons
Page 614 and 615: Marine Plastic Pollution Researchan
Page 616 and 617: Outer Continental Shelf Lands ActTh
Page 618 and 619: Clean Water Act—National EstuaryP
Page 620 and 621: Farm Bill Conservation ProgramsCong
Page 623: APPENDIX EP ROPOSED S TRUCTURE FORC
Page 627 and 628: APPENDIX FC ONGRESSIONAL C OMMITTEE
Page 629 and 630: Table F.1 Congressional Committees
Page 631: Committee on Transportation and Inf
Page 634 and 635: Detailed Costs Associated with Reco
Page 646 and 647: INDEXacademic/academia, 260aquacult
Page 648 and 649: federal area-based programs,34, 150
Page 650 and 651:
integration of multiplesources, 234
Page 652 and 653:
programmatic permitting,312-314prot
Page 654 and 655:
coordination and cooperationin, 100
Page 656 and 657:
Department of Educationinitiative,
Page 658 and 659:
invasive species, 252-263aquacultur
Page 660 and 661:
common heritage of mankind,53deep s
Page 662 and 663:
monitoring programs, 228,230, 231,
Page 664 and 665:
jurisdiction issues, 72, 454nationa
Page 666 and 667:
Mid-Atlantic, 276, 278, 288mission,
Page 668 and 669:
single-hull vessel phase-outs,54, 2
Page 670 and 671:
Service, 215, 260Economic Research
Page 672:
pharmaceuticals and antibiotics,209
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