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Judah (Jer. 27). Later, however, during the destruction itself,
Edom was on the other side, sending its troops against Judah
(II Kings 24:1; “the bands of Edom” should be read in place of
“the bands of Aram”), and even participating in its destruction.
This is verified from the recently discovered Arad letters,
in which Judah is guarding itself against Edom’s penetration
into the land (Y. Aharoni). Edom’s participation in the destruction
of Judah aroused the great anger and strong condemnation
of the poets (Ps. 137; Lam. 4:21–22) and prophets (Isa. 34,
which is to be dated to this period; Jer. 49; Obad.) of Judah.
The anger and condemnation continued in the following generation
in the prophecies of Deutero-Isaiah (Isa. 63).
Edom, too, was subject to destruction in the sixth century
B.C.E. Nomadic tribes infiltrated Edom and exerted pressure
on the Edomites, who turned toward Judah and settled in its
southern region. This settlement was long known in Hellenistic
sources as *Idumea.
Religion and Culture
The gods of Edom were mainly fertility gods, as is evidenced by
the numerous clay figures found in Edom. Like Ammon and
Moab, Edom had one chief god, Qos. This name is known to
be a theophoric element, both from the names of the Edomite
kings mentioned in the inscriptions of the Assyrian kings (see
above) and from names which are preserved in the Bible (e.g.,
Barkos, Neh. 7:55). This name also appears as a first name in a
seal in Hebrew-Edomite script on oil jugs from the eighth and
seventh centuries B.C.E. which were found at Tell al-Khalayfa
“ךלמה דבע לנעסוקל,” “lqwsʿnl servant of the king.” There are
some scholars who read instead of the unclear name Alqum
in Proverbs 30:31, Alqus, on the assumption that the name is
included here in the context of Edomite wisdom. Although
Edom had one national god, it cannot be described even as
monolatry. Biblical evidence emphasizes Edomite polytheism.
It is told of Amaziah after “he came from the slaughter
of the Edomites, he brought the gods of the men of Seir, and
set them up as his gods, and worshipped them, making offerings
to them” (II Chron. 25:14).
Apparently there was an early connection between the
religion of the men of Seir and the early religion of Israel, a
connection deduced from an Egyptian list from the time of
Ramses II (13th century B.C.E.) from a statement in which
there is the unusual juxtaposition “the land of the Shasu of
JHW” (see Herrmann in bibl.). In the same list there is the
equivalent juxtaposition “the land of the Shasu of Seir.” (The
connection between YHWH and Seir can be learned from a
number of early biblical verses, e.g., Deut. 33:2; Judg. 5:4.) Of
course, one cannot speak of the identification in this period
of this name with YHWH but rather about the origin of YHWH
from the same area and ancient contacts between the people
of Israel in its early period and the sons of Seir. In this way the
biblical tradition is confirmed.
From the archaeological excavations and surveys in
Edom it appears that its material culture was developed. The
only evidence with regard to its spiritual culture is biblical.
The wisdom of Edom was held in esteem by the prophets.
Jeremiah asked in amazement: “Is wisdom no more in Teman?
has counsel perished from the prudent? has their wisdom
vanished?” (49:7); Obadiah 8 repeats the same idea: “destroy
the wise men out of Edom, and understanding out of
the mount of Esau.”
In Second Temple Times
The geographical conception of Edom during the Second
Temple period differs radically from that at the time of the
First Temple. Following the movement of Edomites from
southern Transjordan and into southern Palestine, across the
Arabah, in the late seventh and early sixth centuries B.C.E. (II
Kings 24:2; Ezek. 35:6), the area to the south of the territory of
Judah came to be referred to as Edom/Idumea. The territory
of “Darom” (“south”) in Talmudic literature usually refers to
Idumea. Idumea in Second Temple times was further north
than in the previous period and covered a considerable part
of the territory of the tribe of Judah, including Hebron. The
border with Judea passed south of Beth-Zur. This change came
about on the one hand in consequence of the invasion of Old
Edom by new tribes from the desert and the establishment
there, in the course of time, of the Nabatean kingdom; and
secondly through the weakening of Jewish resistance during
the time of the destruction of the Temple and the Babylonian
exile. The return only changed the situation slightly; in general
the returning exiles did not settle south of Beth-Zur. Even in
the list of those who built the walls of Jerusalem in the days
of Nehemiah, there is no mention of men from places south
of the line Tekoa-Beth-Zur-Keilah-Zanoah.
During the Hellenistic period the Idumean region
formed a separate administrative district and is mentioned
as such by Diodorus in connection with the period of the Didache
(Bibliotheca Historica, 19, 98, 1). Marissa and Adorah
were the main Idumean settlements in the Hellenistic era.
Marissa became an important junction during the Ptolemide
era and served, as can be inferred from one of the Zenon papyri
(C.C. Edgar, Catalogue général des antiquités égyptiennes
du Musée de Caire, 1 (1925), 34, no. 59015 verso), as the seat of
the government administration. From the inscriptions and
painted designs in one of the tombs, it is possible to follow in
great measure the process of Hellenization of Marissa during
the Ptolemide era. Among other things, a Phoenician settlement,
which was the standard-bearer of the Hellenistic movement
in Idumea, existed in the town, and had organized itself
as a politeuma of Sidonians in Marissa (W. Dittenberger,
Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae, 2 (1905), 284–5 no. 593).
The Ptolemide government of the country also helped in the
migration of many Idumeans to Egypt. Hostile relations between
the Idumeans and the Jews persisted throughout the
Hellenistic period. Ben Sira enumerates the Edomites among
the “nations whom his soul abhorred” (50, 25–26). The same
enmity is reflected in the quotation from the Greek writer
Mnaseas given by Josephus (Apion 2:112ff.) describing how
Zabidus of Dorii fooled the people of Jerusalem. During the
156 ENCYCLOPAEDIA JUDAICA, Second Edition, Volume 6