JUDAICA - Wisdom In Torah

ethics
is the only biblical character who can truly be described as an
ethical model. The other heroes in biblical narrative (Judah,
Joseph, Moses, Caleb, Joshua), although blessed with fine
qualities, are not described as models of ethical perfection.
The Bible portrays their shortcomings clearly (though implicitly;
Isaac’s weakness of character, Jacob’s cunning, the sins of
Saul and David) and does not make the slightest attempt to
whitewash the ethical defects of its heroes. However, it is the
rule in biblical narrative that appropriate punishment follows
specific transgressions: Jacob, who bought the birthright by
deception, is himself deceived by Laban; David is punished
for his sin with Bath-Sheba, and so on. Yet these features are
not especially emphasized and thus do not give biblical narrative
a prominent ethical orientation. It has been said that
biblical narrative takes no clear moral stance, but rather rejoices
in the success of its heroes even when they act immorally
(Jacob, when he bought the birthright; Rachel, when she
stole the household idols; Jael, when she killed Sisera). It is true
that the main intent of biblical narrative is to make known the
greatness of God, whose acts are the only ones that are perfect.
Thus the narrator can afford to see human beings as they are.
He does not force himself to moralize overmuch, or to make
his heroes model men, but introduces the ethical aspect only
where it suits the story. Thus in the narrator’s attitude to his
heroes one observes a kind of tolerant, knowledgeable understanding
of human nature: it is this which makes most biblical
stories great, both as literature and as ethics.
LAW AND ETHICS. The Bible does not make a formal distinction
between those commandments which could be classified
as ethical, those which are concerned with ritual (circumcision,
sacrifices, the prohibition against eating blood),
and those which deal with common legal matters. Scholarship
is obligated to differentiate between these categories and
to see where the ethical aim appears. The ethical aim can be
distinguished by recognizing the difference between the basic,
general commandment “Thou shalt not murder” and the
laws concerning the punishment of the murderer (e.g., Num.
35). Thus ethical commandments, in the strict sense, are laws
without sanctions, to be obeyed but not enforced, e.g., the
commandments of gleanings, the forgotten sheaf, and the
corner of the field (Lev. 19:9–10, see *Leket, Shikhḥah, and
Pe’ah); the prohibition against harming the orphan and the
widow (e.g., Ex. 22:21–23); the prohibition against delaying
payment of wages (Lev. 19:13). Aside from the clearly ethical
commandments, there is a general tendency in biblical
law to emphasize the aspiration for justice which is the basis
for every law. To be sure, every law is based upon the ethical
viewpoint of the legislator and attempts, through the power of
practical regulations, to enforce the ethics accepted by the existing
society; however, biblical law aspires to this end clearly
and consistently, as for example, “Justice, justice shall you
pursue” (as the summary of practical regulations concerning
the establishment of courts, Deut. 16:18–20), the laws of the
Bible are defined explicitly as “just laws and statutes” (Deut.
4:8). Accordingly ethical and social reasons were attached to
several laws, such as the commandment for the Sabbath: “So
that your male and female slave may rest as you do. Remember
that you were a slave …” (Deut. 5:14–15). This tendency is
revealed in laws whose purpose was to defend the weak and
to limit the power of the oppressor, such as the laws governing
the Hebrew slave (Ex. 21:2; Deut. 15:12) or the relatively lenient
punishment of the thief. Yet it must be remembered that law
is based not only on the abstract viewpoint of the legislator,
but also on the needs of the society according to its particular
structure and customs. Therefore an evaluation of biblical law
is incomplete if only the ethical aspect is considered; however,
the discussion of the aim of law is not essential to the definition
of biblical ethics.
ethical instruction among the
peoples of the ancient near east
Egypt
The Egyptian attitude toward ethics is expressed in literary
works of different types. Among these works it is worth noting
the books of proverbs (wisdom literature) which teach practical
wisdom and proper behavior and include basic ethical
principles such as not to covet, rob, or trespass, to be diligent
in the performance of justice, and the like. Along with these
principles, the books of proverbs include advice on practical
knowledge which goes beyond the foundations of pure ethics;
there is even the impression that the Egyptian sages advised
their students to act justly because in this way they would
succeed and achieve their goals, and not because justice is
an ethical principle in its own right. According to Frankfort,
however, this impression is the product of insufficient understanding
of the Egyptian world view.
Another type of literature similar to wisdom literature in
its ethical orientation and termed “ideal biography” by scholars
is seen in the compositions which were engraved on the
walls of tombstones and monuments to the dead. In them,
the deceased tells what he did and how he conducted himself
throughout his life, as for example: “I spoke the truth, I acted
honestly … I judged both sides to the satisfaction of both. I
rescued, with all my power, the weak from the strong. I gave
bread to the hungry, and clothing to the poor, etc.”
Another aspect of Egyptian ethics is revealed in the collection
of writings called the “Book of the Dead.” This is a
collection of documents from various ancient sources, whose
purpose is to assure the passage of the dead into eternal life.
It contains statements which the deceased must make when
he stands in judgment upon entering the world of the dead,
such as: “I did not do evil to any man … I did not revile the
name of the god, I did not slander the servant in front of his
master … I did not murder, I did not cause a death … I did not
sin by homosexuality, etc.” (ch. 125). The deceased announces
that he did not commit ethical offenses or transgressions of
the cult, without distinguishing between the two. The list is
arranged in a stereotyped manner, but it does contain certain
534 ENCYCLOPAEDIA JUDAICA, Second Edition, Volume 6