JUDAICA - Wisdom In Torah

euphemism and dysphemism
Isa. 36:12; cf. also II Kings 10:27 where Le-maḥara’ot is read lemoẓa’ot);
and sheineihem (“their urine”) to memei ragleihem
(II Kings 18:27; Isa. 36:12).
Lists of euphemistic expressions in the Bible are found
in early tannaitic collections of halakhic Midrash. Eleven examples
are given in the Mekhilta (Shirah 6) and seven in the
Sifrei (Num. 84). The technical term employed is kinnah hakatuv,
“Scripture used a euphemistic expression.” Later collections
of Midrash (Tanḥ. Be-Shalah 16; Gen. R. 49:7; Ex.
R. 13:1) employed the phrase *tikkun soferim (“emendation
of the scribes”) and record additional examples of this phenomenon.
Though the difference in terminology reflects two
different schools of thought, namely those holding that the
Bible itself originally employed euphemistic expressions and
those holding that the change was first made by the soferim,
both agree that the changes were made in deference to the
honor of the Lord (Lieberman). Examples of one such list
follow: (1) “Abraham remained standing before the Lord” for
“The Lord remained standing before Abraham” (Gen. 18:22);
(2) “For his sons were blaspheming themselves” for “blaspheming
God” (I Sam. 3:13); (3) “But my people have changed
their glory for that which does not profit” for “My glory” (Jer.
2:11); (4) “Are you not from everlasting, O Lord my God, my
Holy One? We shall not die” for “You shall not die” (Hab.
1:12); and (5) “For he who touches you touches the apple of
his eye” for “my eye” (Zech. 2:12). Another kind of substitution
resulting from religious scruples is found in the change
of the vocalization of the verb ra’ah (האר; “to see”) from the
active to the passive, “to be seen” (Luzzatto). It is used when
referring to the three appointed times during the year that the
Israelite was obliged to make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem in order
“to see,” i.e., to be in the presence of God (e.g., Ex. 23:15;
34:20, 23; Deut. 16:16).
Dysphemism
Dysphemism is the substitution of an offensive or disparaging
term for an inoffensive one. The biblical examples pertain
to idolatry: (1) ʾElil (“idol”), whose etymology is uncertain (it
may be the diminutive of ʾel (“god”) or derived from ʾal (“nonentity”)),
means worthlessness, nothingness (e.g., Jer. 14:14;
Job 13:4); (2) shikkuẓ (“abomination”) is found in the expression,
“Chemosh, the abomination of Moab and Molech, the
abomination of the Ammonites” (I Kings 11:7; cf. also II Kings
23:13; cf. also the dysphemistic use of shikkuẓ meshomem
(“abomination of desolation”; e.g., Dan. 11:31)). The plurals
shikkuzim (e.g., Deut. 29:16; II Kings 23:24) and gillulim (literally,
“dung-pellets”; “fetishes”; e.g., Lev. 26:30), and toʿevah
(“abomination”; e.g., II Kings 23:13, “Milcom, the abomination
of the Ammonites”), are comparable terms; (3) the word
boshet (“shame”) is substituted for baʿal (“lord”; originally a
title for the God of Israel, but later interpreted as the name of
the Canaanite god, Baal, in several personal names: the names
of Saul’s son, Eshbaal (I Chron. 8:33; 9:39), and grandson (Jonathan’s
son), Merib-Baal (I Chron. 8:34; 9:40), are changed to
Ish-Bosheth (II Sam. 2:8) and Mephibosheth (II Sam. 4:4);
the name of the “judge” Jerubbaal (Gideon; Judg. 6:32) later
appears as Jerubbesheth (II Sam. 11:21)); (4) the vocalization
of “Ashtoreth, the goddess of the Sidonites” may be a dysphemism
alluding to boshet, “shame” (e.g., I Kings 11:5, 33), Ashtoreth
for Ashtereth (cf. Gr. Astarte).
A. Geiger thought the same was true of the pointing of
*Molech, the god of the Ammonites (e.g., I Kings 11:7), but
since O. Eissfeldt’s study of this term, the word molekh, which
may have originally meant “vow” or “sacrifice,” and its pointing,
which may be original to a West Semitic dialect, have been
subject to debate. Some scholars have also assumed a similar
pointing for the Hebrew word, tofet, tefet (cf. Gr. Thappeth,
Thapheth, Tapheth). The substitution of the place name Beth-
Aven (“house of iniquity”) for Beth-El (“house of God”; Hos.
4:15; 5:8) is also a kind of dysphemism which was employed
because of the idolatrous worship in that place.
[Shalom M. Paul]
In the Talmud
Euphemisms are extensively used in the Talmud and Midrash.
The recourse to them is based upon various considerations.
The first is the insistence on the need for pure and refined
speech and the avoidance of all gross and vulgar expressions.
This is explicitly stated in the Talmud: “One should not utter
a gross expression” and examples are given of the manner in
which the Bible itself employs circumlocutions to avoid the
use of the word “unclean.” Actual examples are given: two disciples
of Rav were discussing how the discourse in the academy
had exhausted them. One of them said that he was as exhausted
as a pig (“davar aḥer,” see later), while the other said
“as a kid.” Rav refused to speak to the former. Similarly it is
stated that Hillel foretold of Johanan b. Zakkai (or Judah ha-
Nasi of R. Johanan) that he would be an outstanding teacher
in Israel because, instead of saying, as his colleague did, “we
may gather olives in uncleanness,” he said “we may not gather
olives in cleanness,” and the forecast was fulfilled (Pes. 3b).
The rabbis even regard the use of the phrase “eating bread” in
Genesis 39:6 (Gen. R. 86:6) and in Exodus 2:20 (Tanḥ. 1:11) as
a euphemism for sexual intercourse (that they are probably
right with regard to the former seems clear from a comparison
between Gen. 39:6 and 9).
This delicacy is particularly evident in the euphemisms
used for the privy parts of the body and their functions. The
male genital organ is referred to as “the organ” (ever: BM 84a)
and the female as “that place” (Nid. 20a). The toilet is called
“the house of water” (Meg. 3:2) or “the house of the chair”
(Tam. 1:1; Ber. 25a). Urine is called “the water of the feet” (Ker.
6a) or “the jet” (silon: Ber. 25a) and defecation “having need
of his apertures” (Git. 70a) or “turning aside” (ponim: Toh.
10:2; nifneh: Ber. 62a). Sexual intercourse is “the usage of the
bed” (tashmish ha-mittah: Yoma 8:1) or simply tashmish (Ket.
65b) and so on.
A special euphemism is the use of the phrase davar aḥer
(“another thing”) for anything repulsive. It is generally used
for the *pig, but is variously employed also for leprosy (Pes.
550 ENCYCLOPAEDIA JUDAICA, Second Edition, Volume 6