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Chapter 2: Literature Review
Hence power is perhaps a related term, but also integral to autonomy. Power has
been discussed for many years and many theories of power have been presented.
Dahl (1961) presented his theory of “community power”, which he explained as
power being exercised in a community by a particular concrete individual, while
other individuals are prevented from doing what they prefer to do. Power is
exercised in order to cause those who are subject to it to follow the private
preferences of those who possess the power. Power is the production of obedience.
Gaventa (1980) examined power in the decision-making process. Gaventa’s (1980)
model of power suggested that if there is a shift in the power relations then a
challenge occurs: there must be a loss of power by A or a gain of power by B for a
change to occur, and B must take some steps to overcome his powerlessness. A can
interfere with B’s plans, can interfere with B obtaining resources and developing
abilities, and can incite against the opening up of issues. Foucault (1980) assumed
that a power/knowledge connection cannot be separated. Foucault (1980) described
disciplinary power, which he stated affects most social institutions and leads to a
psychic punishment of the soul. He stated that power relations are dependent on
culture, place and time.
Giddens (1984) constructed the inclusive social theory called “structuration” or
“duality of structure”. He stated that power is exercised by human agents and is also
created by them, influences them and limits them. Giddens (1984) stated that
absolute lack of power means ceasing to be a human agent and therefore it is always
part of relations. Giddens (1984) stated that power can be described on a continuum
of autonomy and dependence. Unequal access to resources for realising goals and
unequal opportunities to influence the course of the interaction ensure mutual
relations, because each side is to a certain extent dependent on the other, and also
autonomous to a certain extent in its action. The investigation of power involves
exposing the dialectics of dependence and autonomy in specific situations.