Global Report on Human Settlements 2007 - PoA-ISS

Urban crime and violence: Conditions and trends
83
significant change.
154 Clarke, 1997.
155 Brantingham and
Brantingham, 1991.
156 Schneider and Kitchen,
2002, 2007.
157 There is a large and growing
literature in this field providing
empirical research to
support place- and
opportunity-based crime
prevention/reduction
theories. For overviews,
including discussions of
theory, empirical work and
practical applications, see
Poyner, 1983; Felson, 1986;
Brantingham and
Brantingham, 1991; Taylor,
1999; Felson, 2002;
Schneider and Kitchen,
2002, 2007; Colquhoun,
2004; Cozens et al, 2004;
ODPM and the Home
Office, 2004. For some
examples and evaluations of
specific empirical work, see
Newman, 1973; Beavon et al,
1994; Sherman, 1995; Eck
and Wartell, 1996; La Vigne,
1996; Clarke, 1997; Sherman
et al, 1998; Loukaitou-
Sideris, 1999; Schweitzer et
al, 1999; Farrington and
Welsh, 2002; Hillier, 2004.
158 Schneider and Kitchen,
2002, 2007.
159 Knowles, 2003a, 2003b.
160 Schneider and Kitchen,
2007.
161 Kitchen, 2005.
162 Schneider and Kitchen,
2002, 2007.
163 LaFree and Tseloni, 2006.
164 Wilson, 1978.
165 Gimode, 2001.
166 WHO, 2002.
167 Center for Family Policy and
Research, 2006.
168 Ibid, 2006.
169 Small Arms Survey, 2006a,
p297.
170 Ibid.
171 Levitt, 2004.
172 Small Arms Survey, 2006a.
173 World Bank, 2003c.
174 Saunders and Taylor, 2002.
175 Lock, 2006.
176 Moser et al, 2005; Briceno-
Leon and Zubillaga, 2002.
177 De Cesare, 1997, cited in
Moser et al, 2005.
178 Rose, 2006.
179 Sinclair and Mills, 2003.
180 Rose, 2006.
181 LaFree and Tseloni, 2006.
182 LaFree, 2002.
183 Manso et al, 2005.
184 Caldeira, 2000; Rodgers,
2003; Blandy et al, 2003.
185 Small Arms Survey, 2006b.
186 UNODC, 2005a.
187 Moser, 2004.
188 See International Action
Network on Small Arms,
undated b.
189 While women are
extremely vulnerable to gun
crimes, statistically, marginalized
young men are the
most likely victims of small
arms violence. They can be
caught up in a range of
socio-cultural pressures
where guns become status
symbols of masculinity and
power, especially in the
absence of political and
economic opportunities. For
example, in the favelas of
Rio de Janeiro, the combination
of availability of guns,
drugs and cultural values
dictating that men do not
accept insults have helped to
push the city’s homicide
rates for young low-income
males to record heights
over the past 25 years; see
Zaluar, 2007.
190 Morrison and Orlando,
1999.
191 Buvinic and Morrison, 1999.
192 Moser and Holland, 1997b.
193 Hamermesh, 1998.
194 UNODC, 2005b.
195 Institute for Security
Studies, 2002.
196 World Bank, 2003a; Krkoska
and Robeck, 2006.
197 Gimode (2001) notes that in
1996, tourism accounted for
13 per cent of total revenue
in Kenya, which was a far cry
from the preceding decades.
198 Boamah and Stanley, 2007.
199 Ibid.
200 Tewarie, 2006; Adams, 2003.
201 Adams, 2003.
202 UNODC, 2005b; Brunetti et
al, undated.
203 UNODC, 2005b.
204 Londono and
Guerrero,1999, cited in
Moser et al, 2005.
205 Gaviria, 2002.
206 Zaluar, 2007, p.15.
207 Gibbons, 2002.
208 Mayhew, 2003.
209 Sampson and Wooldredge,
1986.
210 See Schwartz et al, 2003.
211 This sequence is derived
from Felson, 2002.
212 van Ness, 2005, based on
ICVS data.
213 Budd, 1999.
214 Gibbons, 2002.
215 Moser et al, 2005.
216 www.humansecuritycities.org,
2007, p27.
217 Gimode, 2001.
218 Blakely and Snyder, 1997.
219 Blandy et al, 2003; Blandy,
2005.
220 Mycoo, 2006.
221 Blakeley and Snyder, 1997;
Blandy, 2005.
222 Atlas and LeBlanc, 1994.
223 Clarke, 2003; Schneider and
Kitchen, 2007.
224 See the Gauteng Provincial
Legislature, which passed
the Rationalization of Local
Government Affairs Act in
1998.
225 Zaluar, 2007.
226 Buvinic et al, 1999, cited in
Moser et al, 2005.
227 Ibid, 2005.
228 Humantrafficking.org, 2005.
229 WHO, 2001.
230 Gimode, 2001.
231 HRW, undated b.
232 UNODC, 2005b.
233 See United Nations,
undated,‘Backgrounder 8’,
www.un.org/cyberschoolbus/habitat/background/bg8.
asp.
234 World Bank, 2006d.
235 Bosshard and Lawrence,
2006.
236 Tanzi and Davoodi, 1997;
Tanzi, 1998; Wei, 1999;
Arimah, 2005.
237 Zaluar, 2007.
238 Rodgers, 2003.
239 Ibid.
240 Zaluar, 2007.
241 See Times of India, 2006.
242 See Humantrafficking.org,
undated.
243 IRIN News, 2007a.
244 According to joint estimates
developed by UNAIDS,
UNICEF, USAID and the US
Bureau of Census in 2002,
the total number of living
children under age 15
whose mother, father or
both parents have died of
AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa
is 11 million (Synergy
Project, 2002). See HRW,
undated a.
245 Newman, 1973.
246 Rodgers, 2003.
247 Masese, 2007.
248 Beall, 2006, p114.
249 Beall, 2006.
250 Glaeser and Shapiro, 2002.
251 Bram et al 2002.
252 Ibid, p11.
253 Ibid.
254 Banarji, 1997 cited in Beall,
2006.
255 These measures are taken
from Goodrich, 2002, p57.