Global Report on Human Settlements 2007 - PoA-ISS

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244 Towards safer and more secure cities One of the most apparent trends in the response to crime and violence has been the move from sole reliance on the police and the judiciary to the development of more broadly based approaches initiatives. However, there are few examples of this since the resources available for community safety initiatives are usually small in relation to the scale of the problem. What is important even when organizations that control funding are not prepared to take an open-ended view of communitybased initiatives is that they should be willing to listen to ideas that come from the community sources. Strengthening formal criminal justice and policing Although one of the most apparent trends in the response to crime and violence has been the move from sole reliance on the police and the judiciary to the development of more broadly based approaches, this does not detract from the importance of measures to strengthen the formal criminal justice and policing systems in societies where these can be seen as part of the problem. The move towards more broadly based approaches should not be seen as diminishing the importance of the police and the judiciary, but rather as an acknowledgement of the fact that the struggle against crime and violence needs to encompass an ever broader range of approaches. What is important is that these more ‘traditional’ elements are seen as integral to contemporary comprehensive approaches, rather than as elements standing outside them. ■ An example of a changing police culture: Hong Kong An interesting illustration of the interdependent nature of these phenomena is provided by the move of the Hong Kong police towards a more community focus for its work, and the development of a community service culture (see Box 4.8 in Chapter 4). Here, the debates about the nature and role of community policing approaches, which had been going on vigorously in police forces across the world over this period, 15 were overlain by major political changes away from a colonialist governmental legacy and towards reintegration with China, which, in turn, recognized that Hong Kong was in some important ways different from the rest of the country. What was also clear during this process of change was that it did not always take place in a linear or orderly manner. It included significant stages where public responses to what had been done previously shaped events, and where the ebb and flow of ideas were influenced by the views of key personalities at various points in time. It was also a process that took place over a long period. Clearly, there are elements of this story that are particular to the circumstances of Hong Kong; but there are also aspects that offer useful lessons elsewhere about the dynamics of a process of this nature. In particular, this case study illustrates the importance of a process of winning hearts and minds, both within the police service and among the communities for whom it works. This can be among the most difficult and protracted elements of a change process of this nature. But it is vital if the case for change is to be properly developed and then put into effective practice. ■ Resistance and the inability to change in police and justice systems One of the most important reasons why changes to police and criminal justice systems need to be an integral part of comprehensive attempts to address crime and violence is because diagnoses of the problems to be faced have often concluded that the operation, in practice, has added to the difficulties. Three paragraphs from the UN-Habitat review of its experiences of Safer Cities projects in Africa summarize this well: Police have traditionally placed more emphasis on major crime at the expense of unrelenting community problems and conflicts. Police are often opposed to the introduction of reforms due to cultural resistance to change, inadequate training offered to its agents and a lack of transparency. The justice system is also being questioned in view of its inability to deal effectively with urban delinquency. The helplessness in dealing with files efficiently, the lack of resources, in some cases a lack of transparency, the myriad of laws that are impossible to implement, and the lack of alternative solutions all account for the inefficiency within the justice system. In Africa, the number of prisoners awaiting trial is twice as high as the number of accused. This number is equal in Latin America and much lower in other regions. This illustrates the slow pace and the lack of efficiency in the justice system. Prisons, with the exception of a few modern and experimental ones, can be considered schools for technical training and network development for delinquents. 16 The worldwide rate of recidivism exceeds 60 per cent. But despite evidence that the restorative function of prison fails, they maintain a symbolic value in the minds of many which renders it an easy solution and clear response, as demonstrated in Africa where the rate of incarceration is similar to Latin America but higher than in other regions in the world. 17 Not surprisingly, given this diagnosis, an important component of Safer Cities projects in African cities has been attempts to address such problems. Box 10.3 summarizes the various actions that have been undertaken in this regard. ■ The importance of public confidence in police and justice systems As well as the direct benefits that flow from the specific actions summarized in Box 10.3, the public at large also feels confident that the police and the criminal justice systems will do their jobs properly so that their contribution to public safety will be effective. There is clear evidence from the case studies for this <strong>Global</strong> <strong>Report</strong> that this is not always the case.
Reducing urban crime and violence 245 For example, the Port Moresby case study suggests that the police and criminal justice systems’ public credibility is poor. This is so for several of reasons, including what is frequently seen as violent behaviour by the police; the failure of the prison system to offer anything much more than an advanced education in crime; and the general failure to effectively address the city’s escalating crime problems. As a consequence, there is a need to ‘modernize’ these systems if they are to play a key role in tackling the problems of crime and violence in Port Moresby. 18 An important part of initiatives of this nature is the need to address corruption wherever it exists. This is because the widespread belief that corrupt behaviour will enable criminals to avoid capture and sentencing, or to be treated more leniently than would have been the case, is corrosive of public trust and confidence in these services. Where it is clear that confidence and trust are low, an important element in any action would be steps to retrieve this position since it is very difficult for the police and the criminal justice systems to operate effectively without public support and goodwill. It is important to note that programmes aimed at strengthening the police, particularly in developing countries, should also address their welfare and poor conditions of service. For instance, in Kabul, Afghanistan, the average police officer earns $15 per month. 19 Similarly, in African countries such as Nigeria, Kenya and Ghana, the police earn a pittance, and often lack the appropriate equipment to carry out their duties. In countries such as Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland, South Africa and Kenya, members of the police force have not been spared from the HIV/AIDS pandemic. Furthermore, the living conditions in most police accommodation are appalling. It was therefore not surprising to observers when, in 2002, junior officers of the Nigeria Police Force threatened to embark on strike action to press for improved working and service conditions. ■ Learning from initiatives, finding resources and setting priorities for community safety change In terms of future action, two points stand out from the material summarized in Box 10.3. First, it represents a lot of initiatives in different cities, and it is critical that when evaluations of these initiatives have been undertaken, the lessons that can be learned from them are publicized so that other cities can see what has worked well and under what circumstances, and can shape their own practices accordingly. Second, many of the actions listed in Box 10.3 require extra resources in order to be undertaken. But some of this is about priorities for the use of existing resources. There is still an opportunity cost issue as time spent doing one thing is time not spent doing something else. It is therefore critical that leaders and senior managers in the police and criminal justice systems participate fully in the debates on community safety strategies, are active members of the partnership arrangements that shape them, and buy into what is being attempted in a manner that recognizes the need to review how they utilize their existing resources in order to find ways in which they can contribute effectively. Box 10.3 Actions to strengthen formal criminal justice and policing in Safer Cities projects in African cities There are broadly nine types of actions that have been undertaken to date, which are summarized as follows, together with the key specific types of projects that have been carried out under each of these headings: Decentralized police services: includes strengthening of local police precincts, and creating satellite and mobile police stations. Collaboration with municipalities: includes improvements to police facilities and equipment, joint analysis of crime problems and identification of priorities, and neighbourhood watch. Municipal police involvement in by-laws enforcement: enforcement of the traffic code and regulations, and more patrols and greater visibility in problematic neighbourhoods and areas. Coordination and training: includes liaison with private security agencies, coordination of operations between national and municipal police, and better training of police personnel. Working closer with the local population: including community, neighbourhood and problem-solving policing approaches, prevention programmes that target youth, victims and retailers, and sensitization campaigns. Alternative sanctions: including community work and reparations to victims of various kinds. Neighbourhood justice: including legal education (focusing on rights and responsibilities), ward tribunals, and mediation by neighbourhood and religious chiefs. Detention oriented towards the social and economic reintegration of young offenders: includes completing school, job training and sensitization to the prevention of health problems. Partnership with civil society: including the reintegration of young people within their families and training sessions in the workplace. Source: UN-Habitat, 2006e All of this pertains to priorities, and experience suggests that it is easier to influence the priorities of the police and the criminal justice services if their leaders and senior managers are active participants in the process of pulling together and implementing community safety strategies than if they stand outside them. This may also be about the willingness to experiment and to try new things, especially when faced with evidence or perceptions that traditional ways of doing things may actually be contributing to the problem. It may well be that leaders and senior managers in the police and criminal justice services will be more willing to look at this positively if it is seen as part of a comprehensive programme of change where others are willing to experiment and try new things. ■ The challenges of imprisonment and recidivism The philosophies and resources that govern prison policy and practices, and the laws that determine the crimes for which offenders are sent to prison are usually controlled at national rather than municipal levels. This is one of the most important policy areas through which central governments – by addressing these issues – can contribute to measures to tackle urban crime. Although this problem is being addressed in some countries by improving prison conditions and by placing more emphasis on rehabilitation, a particular Programmes aimed at strengthening the police, particularly in developing countries, should also address their welfare and poor conditions of service
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ENHANCING URBAN SAFETY AND SECURITY
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First published by Earthscan in the
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INTRODUCTION Enhancing Urban Safety
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The preparation of
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x Enhancing Urban Safety and Securi
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xvi Enhancing Urban Safety and Secu
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xviii Enhancing Urban Safety and Se
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LIST OF FIGURES, BOXES AND TABLES F
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xxviii Enhancing Urban Safety and S
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4 Understanding Urban Safety and Se
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1 CHAPTER CURRENT THREATS TO URBAN
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Current threats to urban safety and
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2 CHAPTER VULNERABILITY, RISK AND R
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Vulnerability, risk and resilience:
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29 simply ‘give up’ in the face
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46 Urban crime and violence Box II.
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48 Urban crime and violence it has
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50 Urban crime and violence Formal
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52 Urban crime and violence Contact
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54 Urban crime and violence Per 100
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56 Urban crime and violence Burglar
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58 Urban crime and violence Percent
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60 Urban crime and violence Figure
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62 Urban crime and violence Table 3
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64 Urban crime and violence Youth g
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68 Urban crime and violence Type of
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70 Urban crime and violence From a
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72 Urban crime and violence One vio
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74 Urban crime and violence High ho
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76 Urban crime and violence Abused
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78 Urban crime and violence General
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82 Urban crime and violence porate
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4 CHAPTER URBAN CRIME AND VIOLENCE:
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86 Urban crime and violence UN-Habi
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88 Urban crime and violence Box 4.2
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90 Urban crime and violence Box 4.4
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92 Urban crime and violence Legisla
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94 Urban crime and violence above w
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96 Urban crime and violence Campaig
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98 Urban crime and violence Availab
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100 Urban crime and violence Box 4.
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102 Urban crime and violence In som
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104 Urban crime and violence Initia
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106 Urban crime and violence The mo
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108 Urban crime and violence Vander
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112 Security of tenure Box III.1 Se
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5 CHAPTER SECURITY OF TENURE: CONDI
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116 Security of tenure Table 5.1 A
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118 Security of tenure Fully legal
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120 Security of tenure Box 5.4 Secu
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122 Security of tenure Urban tenure
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124 Security of tenure At least 2 m
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126 Security of tenure Market-based
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128 Security of tenure Box 5.11 Urb
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130 Security of tenure Operation Mu
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132 Security of tenure Control of l
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134 Security of tenure Box 5.18 Sec
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136 Security of tenure NOTES 1 Habi
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138 Security of tenure Box 6.1 The
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140 Security of tenure It would be
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142 Security of tenure Box 6.7 Land
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144 Security of tenure Box 6.10 Wha
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146 Security of tenure Box 6.12 Evi
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148 Security of tenure Box 6.15 Con
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150 Security of tenure Box 6.18 Vio
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152 Security of tenure The
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154 Security of tenure Box 6.24 Lan
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156 Security of tenure The state is
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158 Security of tenure Housing righ
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Over the last three decades, natura
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Introduction 165 One of the key tre
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7 CHAPTER DISASTER RISK: CONDITIONS
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Disaster risk: Conditions, trends a
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294 Towards safer and more secure c
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304 Summary of case studies Since i
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306 Summary of case studies • The
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308 Summary of case studies tions w
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310 Summary of case studies environ
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312 Summary of case studies others.
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314 Summary of case studies purpose
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316 Summary of case studies These e
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318 Summary of case studies develop
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320 Summary of case studies tion ex
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322 Summary of case studies Housing
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324 Summary of case studies Prolong
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326 Summary of case studies momentu
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330 Statistical annex Islands, Micr
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332 Statistical annex NOMENCLATURE
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334 Statistical annex Population, u
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336 Statistical annex SOURCES OF DA
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338 Enhancing Urban Safety and Secu
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410 TABLE C.7 continued Enhancing U
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INDEX ACHR (Asian Coalition for Hou
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Index 435 security of tenure 134 co
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Index 437 domestic abuse see intima
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Index 439 hazard management 169 haz
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Index 441 Kosovo, security of tenur
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Index 443 participation 38, 296-299
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Index 445 individual 34-35 municipa
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Index 447 gun ownership 78 Homeless
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