Global Report on Human Settlements 2007 - PoA-ISS

More documents

Recommendations

Info

60 Urban crime and violence Figure 3.13 Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index (2005) Source: Transparency International, 2005b Figure 3.14 Sectors and institutions most influenced by corruption Note: 1 = not at all corrupt; 5 = extremely corrupt. Source: Transparency International, 2005a Political parties Parliament/legislature Police Legal system/judiciary Business/private sector Tax revenue Customs Media Medical services Utilities Education system Military Registry and permit services NGOs Religious bodies democratic institutions explain the occurrence of corruption among countries. 74 The likelihood of corruption taking place is also high where significant natural resources are extracted in environments that are relatively free of state oversight, including effective judiciaries. For instance, in 2004, Transparency International noted that many oil-producing states in the developing and transitional world have low CPI scores since these industries provide significant opportunities for bribery, embezzlement and cash skimming. 75 Such circumstances also provide the recipe for civil unrest and urban warfare insomuch as they ‘provide fuel for both greed and grievance’. 76 The following sub-section considers the various conditions and trends associated with organized crime. Organized crime The United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime defines organized crime to mean ‘a structured group of three or more persons existing for a period of 0 1 2 3 4 time and acting in concert with the aim of committing one or more serious crimes or offences established pursuant to this Convention in order to obtain, directly, or indirectly, a financial or other material benefit’. 77 As one of the major threats to human security, transnational organized crime has been characterized by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) as ‘impeding the social, economic, political and cultural development of societies worldwide’. An enormously diverse series of enterprises, organized crime profits from drug trafficking, trafficking in human beings, trafficking in firearms, smuggling of migrants and money laundering, among others. As one measure of its profitability, the United Nations Drug Control Programme has estimated that US$1billion in illicit capital is circulated daily by criminal groups among the world’s financial institutions. These groups thrive in political and social contexts where traditional values have given way to ‘a mentality of individual advancement at any price’. 78 Fed by market forces, and especially by globalization, organized crime groups have adapted to changing economic and social conditions faster than the abilities of most states to constrain them. Assessing the conditions and trends of international criminal organizations is challenging for many reasons. Chief among them are the different scales at which the various groups operate (from the local to the international level); the fundamental data collection hurdles relative to crime, generally, and to the secretive nature of the groups, in particular; and the highly adaptive structures and dynamic nature of the groups. To overcome some of these problems, a recent analysis of the prevalence and global distribution of organized crime has been conducted using ‘statistical markers’ based on data from World Economic Forum surveys (1997 to 2003) and an international crime assessment group representing 156 countries. 79 One of these markers is the Organized Crime Perception Index (OCPI), which is a composite score that
Urban crime and violence: Conditions and trends 61 refers to the ‘levels of different types of organized crime activities, such as extortion and drugs, arms and people trafficking, as perceived by potential victim groups and experts’. 80 That marker and four others – the extent of the shadow economy; the percentage of unsolved homicides; the high level of corruption among public officials; and the extent of money laundering – are used in Table 3.3 to rank regions of the world on the basis of their levels of organized crime activities. Table 3.3 shows that Oceania/Australia has the lowest composite rank (least), while the Caribbean has the highest (most) in terms of organized crime activity. Although there is general consistency between regional scores and the rank order, a cautionary note is necessary with regard to these numbers, given that data is missing for some countries. Nevertheless, the data is suggestive of regional differences that tend to be consistent with country data. Figure 3.16 illustrates the manifestations of organized crime in various nations of the world using the OCPI. The index shows low levels of organized crime in Canada and Australia. The same is true for Northern Europe, with levels increasing as one moves south and east into Italy, Spain and especially into Eastern European nations such as Russia and Ukraine. South Asia, particularly Pakistan and Bangladesh, stand out with comparatively high levels of organized crime, while India and China are seen as having higher activity than some southern European countries, such as Italy. The African nations of Nigeria, Angola and Mozambique have the highest composite scores. In Latin America and the Caribbean, the countries of Haiti, Guatemala, Paraguay, Venezuela, Colombia and Jamaica stand out with the highest composite index scores. 81 Conditions supporting the growth of organized crime, such as globalization of markets and increasingly sophisticated communications technology, are not likely to diminish in the near future. Facilitated by developments in these areas, organized crime has flourished in urban drug trafficking and trafficking in arms and in people. The following sub-sections describe global, regional and national conditions and trends related to these facets of organized crime. ■ Illicit drug trafficking and use Drug trafficking, simply defined as buying and selling illegal drugs, is a huge worldwide industry that is often the province of organized crime. Moreover, drug trafficking and drug use are fundamental risk factors underlying crime and violence at global, national and local levels. Drug addiction, particularly in urban areas, fuels crime and violence, increases policing and healthcare costs, disintegrates families and generally diminishes the quality of life. While long-term overall trends point to some successes in combating the availability of drugs, such as the reduction of coca cultivation in the Andean region and the decline of opium production in Asia’s Golden Triangle, these gains may be offset by setbacks elsewhere, such as the increasing demand for cocaine in parts of Europe, amphetamines in Asia and the US and new transit routes for illicit drugs that have opened in West Africa. The extent of global illicit drug use is depicted in Figure 3.17. This is estimated to be 5 per cent of Asia Political parties Parliament/legislature Police Tax revenue (12 countries) 4.2 3.9 3.9 3.5 the worlds’ population aged 15 to 64, or 200 million people. Trafficking is one of the major components of the illicit drug problem. The other components are cultivation, production, retailing and consumption. Of these components, the least is known about trafficking, although information can be obtained indirectly through studies of criminal group activities and through estimates of drug supplies, areas under cultivation and drug seizures. Seizure and trafficking routes for drugs vary by region, by nation and by the type of drug in question. 82 There are three major destinations for cannabis resin: West and Central Europe (transiting Spain and The Netherlands); the Near and Middle East/Southwest Asia region (with supplies originating in Afghanistan and Pakistan); and North Africa. Much of the cannabis resin supplied to West and Central Europe and to North Africa is produced in Morocco. In 2004, more cannabis resin was seized in Spain in 2004 than in any other nation. The world’s main cocaine trafficking routes continue to run from the Andean region, notably Colombia, to the US, with Europe as the second most important destination for cocaine produced in the Andean region. The trafficking and use of cocaine in Asia and Oceania is low compared to the rest of the world, while the use in West and Central Africa increased in 2004 on account of the region being a transshipment point to European markets. Trafficking illicit drugs is a major profit generator for organized crime groups, who often plough their profits into the purchase and subsequent marketing of illegal weapons and engage in trafficking people. The connections between drugs, arms and human trafficking are complex and not Percentage of respondents Africa (8 countries) Police Political parties Customs Parliament/legislature 4.4 4.2 4.0 3.8 Western Europe Political parties Parliament/legislature Business/private sector Media (16 countries) 3.7 3.3 3.3 3.3 Central and Eastern Political parties Police Parliament/legislature Legal system/judiciary Europe (14 countries) 4.0 4.0 3.9 3.9 Latin America and Political parties Parliament/legislature Police Legal system/judiciary the Caribbean 4.5 4.4 4.3 4.3 (15 countries) 80 60 40 20 0 Table 3.2 The most corrupt sectors by region Note: 1 = not at all corrupt; 5 = extremely corrupt. Source: Transparency International, 2005a, p5 Drug addiction, particularly in urban areas, fuels crime and violence … disintegrates families and generally diminishes the quality of life Figure 3.15 Bribes for public services Note: Percentage of respondents who paid a bribe for public services they were entitled to. Source: Transparency International, 2005a, p15 Bolivia Cameroon Dominican Republic Ethiopia Ghana Guatemala India Kenya Lithuania Mexico Moldova Nigeria Pakistan Paraguay Peru Romania Russia Serbia Togo Ukraine
Page 3:
ENHANCING URBAN SAFETY AND SECURITY
Page 6 and 7:
First published by Earthscan in the
Page 8 and 9:
INTRODUCTION Enhancing Urban Safety
Page 10 and 11:
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The preparation of
Page 12 and 13:
x Enhancing Urban Safety and Securi
Page 14 and 15:
xii Enhancing Urban Safety and Secu
Page 16 and 17:
xiv Enhancing Urban Safety and Secu
Page 18 and 19:
xvi Enhancing Urban Safety and Secu
Page 20 and 21:
xviii Enhancing Urban Safety and Se
Page 22 and 23:
LIST OF FIGURES, BOXES AND TABLES F
Page 24 and 25:
xxii Enhancing Urban Safety and Sec
Page 26 and 27:
xxiv Enhancing Urban Safety and Sec
Page 28 and 29:
xxvi Enhancing Urban Safety and Sec
Page 30 and 31:
xxviii Enhancing Urban Safety and S
Page 32 and 33:
xxx Enhancing Urban Safety and Secu
Page 34:
xxxii Enhancing Urban Safety and Se
Page 38 and 39:
4 Understanding Urban Safety and Se
Page 41 and 42:
1 CHAPTER CURRENT THREATS TO URBAN
Page 43 and 44: Current threats to urban safety and
Page 57 and 58: 2 CHAPTER VULNERABILITY, RISK AND R
Page 59 and 60: Vulnerability, risk and resilience:
Page 63 and 64: 29 simply ‘give up’ in the face
Page 75: Vulnerability, risk and resilience:
Page 80 and 81: 46 Urban crime and violence Box II.
Page 82 and 83: 48 Urban crime and violence it has
Page 84 and 85: 50 Urban crime and violence Formal
Page 86 and 87: 52 Urban crime and violence Contact
Page 88 and 89: 54 Urban crime and violence Per 100
Page 90 and 91: 56 Urban crime and violence Burglar
Page 92 and 93: 58 Urban crime and violence Percent
Page 96 and 97: 62 Urban crime and violence Table 3
Page 98 and 99: 64 Urban crime and violence Youth g
Page 102 and 103: 68 Urban crime and violence Type of
Page 104 and 105: 70 Urban crime and violence From a
Page 106 and 107: 72 Urban crime and violence One vio
Page 108 and 109: 74 Urban crime and violence High ho
Page 110 and 111: 76 Urban crime and violence Abused
Page 112 and 113: 78 Urban crime and violence General
Page 116 and 117: 82 Urban crime and violence porate
Page 118 and 119: 4 CHAPTER URBAN CRIME AND VIOLENCE:
Page 120 and 121: 86 Urban crime and violence UN-Habi
Page 122 and 123: 88 Urban crime and violence Box 4.2
Page 124 and 125: 90 Urban crime and violence Box 4.4
Page 126 and 127: 92 Urban crime and violence Legisla
Page 128 and 129: 94 Urban crime and violence above w
Page 130 and 131: 96 Urban crime and violence Campaig
Page 132 and 133: 98 Urban crime and violence Availab
Page 134 and 135: 100 Urban crime and violence Box 4.
Page 136 and 137: 102 Urban crime and violence In som
Page 138 and 139: 104 Urban crime and violence Initia
Page 140 and 141: 106 Urban crime and violence The mo
Page 142: 108 Urban crime and violence Vander
Page 146 and 147:
112 Security of tenure Box III.1 Se
Page 148 and 149:
5 CHAPTER SECURITY OF TENURE: CONDI
Page 150 and 151:
116 Security of tenure Table 5.1 A
Page 152 and 153:
118 Security of tenure Fully legal
Page 154 and 155:
120 Security of tenure Box 5.4 Secu
Page 156 and 157:
122 Security of tenure Urban tenure
Page 158 and 159:
124 Security of tenure At least 2 m
Page 160 and 161:
126 Security of tenure Market-based
Page 162 and 163:
128 Security of tenure Box 5.11 Urb
Page 164 and 165:
130 Security of tenure Operation Mu
Page 166 and 167:
132 Security of tenure Control of l
Page 168 and 169:
134 Security of tenure Box 5.18 Sec
Page 170 and 171:
136 Security of tenure NOTES 1 Habi
Page 172 and 173:
138 Security of tenure Box 6.1 The
Page 174 and 175:
140 Security of tenure It would be
Page 176 and 177:
142 Security of tenure Box 6.7 Land
Page 178 and 179:
144 Security of tenure Box 6.10 Wha
Page 180 and 181:
146 Security of tenure Box 6.12 Evi
Page 182 and 183:
148 Security of tenure Box 6.15 Con
Page 184 and 185:
150 Security of tenure Box 6.18 Vio
Page 186 and 187:
152 Security of tenure The
Page 188 and 189:
154 Security of tenure Box 6.24 Lan
Page 190 and 191:
156 Security of tenure The state is
Page 192 and 193:
158 Security of tenure Housing righ
Page 197 and 198:
Over the last three decades, natura
Page 199 and 200:
Introduction 165 One of the key tre
Page 201 and 202:
7 CHAPTER DISASTER RISK: CONDITIONS
Page 203 and 204:
Disaster risk: Conditions, trends a
Page 205 and 206:
Page 207 and 208:
Page 209 and 210:
Page 211 and 212:
Page 213 and 214:
Page 215 and 216:
Page 217 and 218:
Page 219 and 220:
Page 221 and 222:
Page 223 and 224:
Page 225 and 226:
Page 227 and 228:
Page 229 and 230:
8 CHAPTER POLICY RESPONSES TO DISAS
Page 231 and 232:
Policy responses to disaster risk 1
Page 233 and 234:
Page 235 and 236:
Page 237 and 238:
Page 239 and 240:
Page 241 and 242:
Page 243 and 244:
Page 245 and 246:
Page 247 and 248:
Page 249 and 250:
Page 251:
Page 254 and 255:
220 Natural and human-made disaster
Page 256 and 257:
Page 258 and 259:
Page 260 and 261:
Page 262 and 263:
Page 264 and 265:
Page 266:
Page 270 and 271:
236 Towards safer and more secure c
Page 272 and 273:
Page 274 and 275:
Page 276 and 277:
Page 278 and 279:
Page 280 and 281:
Page 282 and 283:
Page 284 and 285:
Page 286 and 287:
Page 288 and 289:
Page 290 and 291:
Page 292 and 293:
Page 294 and 295:
Page 296 and 297:
11 CHAPTER ENHANCING TENURE SECURIT
Page 298 and 299:
Page 300 and 301:
Page 302 and 303:
Page 304 and 305:
Page 306 and 307:
Page 308 and 309:
Page 310 and 311:
276 Enhancing Urban Safety and Secu
Page 312 and 313:
12 CHAPTER MITIGATING THE IMPACTS O
Page 314 and 315:
Page 316 and 317:
Page 318 and 319:
Page 320 and 321:
Page 322 and 323:
Page 324 and 325:
Page 326 and 327:
Page 328 and 329:
Page 330 and 331:
Page 332 and 333:
Page 334:
Page 338 and 339:
304 Summary of case studies Since i
Page 340 and 341:
306 Summary of case studies • The
Page 342 and 343:
308 Summary of case studies tions w
Page 344 and 345:
310 Summary of case studies environ
Page 346 and 347:
312 Summary of case studies others.
Page 348 and 349:
314 Summary of case studies purpose
Page 350 and 351:
316 Summary of case studies These e
Page 352 and 353:
318 Summary of case studies develop
Page 354 and 355:
320 Summary of case studies tion ex
Page 356 and 357:
322 Summary of case studies Housing
Page 358 and 359:
324 Summary of case studies Prolong
Page 360:
326 Summary of case studies momentu
Page 364 and 365:
330 Statistical annex Islands, Micr
Page 366 and 367:
332 Statistical annex NOMENCLATURE
Page 368 and 369:
334 Statistical annex Population, u
Page 370 and 371:
336 Statistical annex SOURCES OF DA
Page 372 and 373:
Page 374 and 375:
Page 376 and 377:
Page 378 and 379:
Page 380 and 381:
Page 382 and 383:
Page 384 and 385:
Page 386 and 387:
Page 388 and 389:
Page 390 and 391:
Page 392 and 393:
Page 394 and 395:
Page 396 and 397:
Page 398 and 399:
Page 400 and 401:
Page 402 and 403:
Page 404 and 405:
Page 406 and 407:
Page 408 and 409:
Page 410 and 411:
Page 412 and 413:
Page 414 and 415:
Page 416 and 417:
Page 418 and 419:
Page 420 and 421:
Page 422 and 423:
Page 424 and 425:
Page 426 and 427:
Page 428 and 429:
Page 430 and 431:
Page 432 and 433:
Page 434 and 435:
Page 436 and 437:
Page 438 and 439:
Page 440 and 441:
Page 442 and 443:
Page 444 and 445:
410 TABLE C.7 continued Enhancing U
Page 446 and 447:
Page 448 and 449:
Page 450 and 451:
Page 452 and 453:
Page 454 and 455:
Page 456 and 457:
Page 458 and 459:
Page 460 and 461:
Page 462 and 463:
Page 464 and 465:
Page 467 and 468:
INDEX ACHR (Asian Coalition for Hou
Page 469 and 470:
Index 435 security of tenure 134 co
Page 471 and 472:
Index 437 domestic abuse see intima
Page 473 and 474:
Index 439 hazard management 169 haz
Page 475 and 476:
Index 441 Kosovo, security of tenur
Page 477 and 478:
Index 443 participation 38, 296-299
Page 479 and 480:
Index 445 individual 34-35 municipa
Page 481 and 482:
Index 447 gun ownership 78 Homeless
show all

Global Report on Human Settlements 2007 - PoA-ISS

You also want an ePaper? Increase the reach of your titles

Delete template?

Save as template?