Global Report on Human Settlements 2007 - PoA-ISS

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256 Towards safer and more secure cities Many determinants of crime and violence are local in context and are better tackled through local interventions Capacity-building at the local level One of the most important tasks that partnerships and other implementing agencies need to undertake as an early part of the process of tackling crime and violence is an assessment of the extent to which what they want to do might be limited by the capacities of the relevant organizations and individuals. This should be followed up by a programme designed to address capacity limitations over a reasonable period of time. Put differently, implementing organizations need to audit the skills available to them in relation to what they want to do and to put in place actions to tackle the deficiencies identified. This may need to be seen as a process that will take a reasonable amount of time; in the short term, there may be limits on what can be achieved. The critical issue is the need to recognize the relationship between what the implementing body wishes to do and the human capacity that is available to get this done effectively. The failure to take cognisance of this partly accounts for why programmes in this field sometimes struggle. Discovering from an audit process of this kind that there is a shortage of the appropriate skills typically raises two types of issues. The first relates to resource – are the resources available to bring in more people with the necessary skills and experience? The second is a staff development issue – can existing staff be helped in sufficient numbers to develop the required skills? These are not mutually exclusive alternatives, but they may well operate over different timeframes, with the former approach probably being quicker. Very often, the resources are simply not available for wholesale programmes of recruitment in order to bring in the required skills; as a result, for many organizations, staff development is a necessary component of seeking to develop new functions or to undertake new initiatives. A judicious combination of bringing skills in from the outside and improving existing staff capabilities is often the response to this situation. But most organizations with limited budgets would probably take the view that investing in staff development is a better long-term option than relying on imported skills, even though the latter, in the short term, might enable action to be undertaken more quickly. For example, the decision to pay more attention to the principles of CPTED in managing new development and in tackling the crime problems experienced by existing development will require people in the architecture, planning and police communities who are knowledgeable about these issues and have practical experience of working in these fields. Internationally, but not always locally, expertise of this kind is available and can be brought into organizations by various means in order to kick-start programmes of this nature. One example of initiatives of this kind might be relatively short-term international secondments of skilled and experienced professionals. But in-service training programmes can also help to develop a cadre of people who build up these skills over a period of time. Programmes that seek to link these two elements in appropriate ways so that external expertise is used not just to begin work in the field, but also to institute training programmes that can then be expanded upon by their early participants, may have much to offer in these terms. Over time, activities of this kind can develop relationships with the formal structure of skills and qualifications development in a country so that they become part of its more formal awards programmes, often through further or higher education institutions or professional bodies. But it is likely that the focus will be on the more immediate benefits of capacity development. One of the most valuable learning tools in this context is the initial work being undertaken to implement programmes so that there are benefits from these activities not just in terms of the specific achievements, but also in the opportunities they offer in developing the skills of those who either participate in these processes or observe them at close hand. The kinds of skills that are important here include not just direct hands-on skills, but also reflective skills, so that people are able to think about what is going well or badly, and to consider appropriate action as a consequence. It also needs to be acknowledged that capacity development issues permeate the work both of local authorities and of partnerships at all levels; thus, the potential scale of this challenge may be daunting. To take just four groups of stakeholders by way of illustration, the development needs of different groups of professionals; partnership members; the local development community and its various agents; and members of community groups may all be different, not just from each other, but also within each of these groups. It is very unlikely that a partnership would be able to put in place a single programme that could tackle all of these differing needs at the same time. But what a partnership could do in this situation is to acknowledge the nature and the extent of this task, commit itself to addressing it over a reasonable period of time, and make a start on what it is able to do immediately. In making decisions on matters of this nature, the partnership will want to take into account the benefits that will ensue not just to its own immediate operations, but also to the capacities of various stakeholders (including community members and groups) to contribute more effectively in implementing the overall strategy. Improving capacity should be seen by partnerships and other implementing bodies as seeking to establish a continuous trajectory of improvement. In the UN-Habitat Safer Cities Programme, this responsibility is often carried out through the Safer Cities coordinator (who will also need training for this role), who is able to draw on some training modules that have already been developed by UN-Habitat for particular issues. 49 The ability to do things such as this is one of the real benefits of a programmatic approach because it means that cities that have decided to undertake Safer Cities projects can learn directly in this way from the accumulated experience of Safer Cities work elsewhere. Integrating crime prevention into urban development Many determinants of crime and violence are local in context and are better tackled through local interventions. The impacts of crime and violence are also to a large extent local. It is therefore quite understandable that crime and violence are increasingly becoming subjects of concern for
Reducing urban crime and violence 257 urban development interventions and policies. There are various ways of achieving this, and the role that local authorities play is important in this respect. Specifically, it is important to systematically include crime and violence among issues to be analysed when assessing urban development and investment needs, as well as in relation to the formulation of City Development Strategies. Similarly, development interventions and policies should be subjected, as much as possible, to crime impact assessment. Although integrated and comprehensive tools to assess crime impacts have not been fully developed, social impact assessment and the ex-ante evaluation of physical developments in terms of their vulnerability to crime or responsiveness to criteria of prevention through environmental design could become routine. Another means for working towards increased integration of the issue would be the involvement of the police and its knowledge and experience in the formulation of policies and projects. The experience of the UK in relation to the collaboration between the police and planning authorities, or the positive role played by police authorities and individual officers in the consultative processes promoted by UN-Habitat Safer Cities Programme, indicate the potential of such collaboration. This will also assist in changing the negative perception of the police, and would respond to the need for partnership that the police itself often expresses in relation to crime prevention. Such integration requires more accurate and in-depth analytical capacities and information, the development of local capacity, and a systematic analysis of the relationships between service provision, social and economic urban policies, and planning, with crime prevention. Such relations are complex and, to some extent, debatable and have to be clarified locally. Integration will also require the development of tools and the necessary guidelines. Indeed, there are to date still very few training and academic programmes that provide training geared towards such integration. Effective international support for initiatives against crime and violence International support of various kinds can help cities in the developing world to improve their ability to effectively implement measures that address problems of crime and violence. This kind of direct assistance should be seen as part of a package, which also includes continuing and strengthening international cooperation in tackling certain kinds of crime, where very often their worst consequences are most felt in cities. For example, as Chapters 3 and 4 have discussed, the trafficking of drugs, arms and people into prostitution are all matters where international cooperation is vitally important, and where, in practice, the consequences of a failure to stop illegal activities of this nature will be experienced on the streets of cities of both the Western world and the rapidly urbanizing developing world. It is important that support activities continue and develop across this full spectrum. But the following discussion develops, in particular, arguments about the scope for direct international support targeted at particular cities. In terms of direct action to help specific cities, several examples have already been given of projects that are of considerable benefit. For example, funding from the US has been a very significant factor in recent efforts to mount projects tackling aspects of crime and violence in Kingston (Jamaica). 50 The Netherlands has contributed to Safer Cities projects in Johannesburg, Durban and Dar es Salaam (where the government of Sweden has also been a contributor). 51 Canada has helped with the process of updating the preexisting review of the experience of Safer Cities projects in Africa. 52 These are a few examples of how international assistance can help the effort to tackle crime and violence in rapidly developing cities. Targeted assistance of this nature is not only immediately beneficial to the recipient city, but it also gives the donating organization confidence that the funding will be used in the specified manner and will not be filtered off for other uses, including corrupt activities, which has been a big issue in relation to international funding. One particular type of international support that can be very helpful is in the field of training and staff development. There are already several good examples of this practice. For example, as part of its support for the reform of the Jamaica Constabulary Force since 2000, the UK government has been providing financial resources on a significant scale – UK£2.5 million in the first three-year period, a further UK£2.4 million for the three years from August 2005, and a further UK£750,000 announced in October 2005, mainly to support international police officers working alongside Jamaica’s force in addressing issues of serious crime. This latter element has included Metropolitan Police officers working directly with their Jamaican counterparts, as well as training being offered by the Metropolitan Police to the Jamaica Constabulary Force. 53 The relationship between the Jamaica Constabulary Force and the UK’s Metropolitan Police suggests there can be particular advantages in this relationship existing on a continuous rather than an ad hoc basis since this offers the opportunity of progressive improvement rather than short-term gains. This arrangement was also of direct value to the UK in the sense that it helped to stem the flow of criminal activity from Jamaica to the UK. 54 Bearing in mind the international nature of some criminal activity, this is a dimension that should not be ignored when considering such arrangements. Mentoring projects can also help in this situation and may well be an appropriate form of follow-up to initial training periods. If initiatives of this kind concentrate not just on skills development, but also on helping to develop a cadre of people capable of training others in their locality, this can be a very cost-effective form of assistance with considerable long-term benefits. It should also be said that the benefits of approaches of this nature can be two way since this can also be a useful development opportunity for the individual seconded and from which the employing organization would also subsequently benefit. There is clearly scope for more initiatives of this kind because capacity-building is one of the significant problem areas that many crime and violence initiatives face in parts of the world where few, if any, of these kinds of activities have taken place previously. It is important to systematically include crime and violence among issues to be analysed when assessing urban development and investment needs International support of various kinds can help cities in the developing world to improve their ability to effectively implement measures that address problems of crime and violence
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ENHANCING URBAN SAFETY AND SECURITY
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First published by Earthscan in the
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INTRODUCTION Enhancing Urban Safety
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The preparation of
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x Enhancing Urban Safety and Securi
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xii Enhancing Urban Safety and Secu
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xvi Enhancing Urban Safety and Secu
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xviii Enhancing Urban Safety and Se
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LIST OF FIGURES, BOXES AND TABLES F
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xxxii Enhancing Urban Safety and Se
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4 Understanding Urban Safety and Se
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1 CHAPTER CURRENT THREATS TO URBAN
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Current threats to urban safety and
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2 CHAPTER VULNERABILITY, RISK AND R
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Vulnerability, risk and resilience:
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29 simply ‘give up’ in the face
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46 Urban crime and violence Box II.
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48 Urban crime and violence it has
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50 Urban crime and violence Formal
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52 Urban crime and violence Contact
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54 Urban crime and violence Per 100
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56 Urban crime and violence Burglar
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58 Urban crime and violence Percent
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60 Urban crime and violence Figure
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62 Urban crime and violence Table 3
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64 Urban crime and violence Youth g
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68 Urban crime and violence Type of
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70 Urban crime and violence From a
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72 Urban crime and violence One vio
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74 Urban crime and violence High ho
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76 Urban crime and violence Abused
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78 Urban crime and violence General
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82 Urban crime and violence porate
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4 CHAPTER URBAN CRIME AND VIOLENCE:
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86 Urban crime and violence UN-Habi
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88 Urban crime and violence Box 4.2
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90 Urban crime and violence Box 4.4
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92 Urban crime and violence Legisla
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94 Urban crime and violence above w
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96 Urban crime and violence Campaig
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98 Urban crime and violence Availab
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100 Urban crime and violence Box 4.
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102 Urban crime and violence In som
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104 Urban crime and violence Initia
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106 Urban crime and violence The mo
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108 Urban crime and violence Vander
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112 Security of tenure Box III.1 Se
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5 CHAPTER SECURITY OF TENURE: CONDI
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116 Security of tenure Table 5.1 A
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118 Security of tenure Fully legal
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120 Security of tenure Box 5.4 Secu
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122 Security of tenure Urban tenure
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124 Security of tenure At least 2 m
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126 Security of tenure Market-based
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128 Security of tenure Box 5.11 Urb
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130 Security of tenure Operation Mu
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132 Security of tenure Control of l
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134 Security of tenure Box 5.18 Sec
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136 Security of tenure NOTES 1 Habi
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138 Security of tenure Box 6.1 The
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140 Security of tenure It would be
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142 Security of tenure Box 6.7 Land
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144 Security of tenure Box 6.10 Wha
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146 Security of tenure Box 6.12 Evi
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148 Security of tenure Box 6.15 Con
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150 Security of tenure Box 6.18 Vio
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152 Security of tenure The
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154 Security of tenure Box 6.24 Lan
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156 Security of tenure The state is
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158 Security of tenure Housing righ
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Over the last three decades, natura
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Introduction 165 One of the key tre
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7 CHAPTER DISASTER RISK: CONDITIONS
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Disaster risk: Conditions, trends a
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8 CHAPTER POLICY RESPONSES TO DISAS
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306 Summary of case studies • The
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308 Summary of case studies tions w
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310 Summary of case studies environ
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312 Summary of case studies others.
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314 Summary of case studies purpose
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316 Summary of case studies These e
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318 Summary of case studies develop
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320 Summary of case studies tion ex
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322 Summary of case studies Housing
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324 Summary of case studies Prolong
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326 Summary of case studies momentu
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330 Statistical annex Islands, Micr
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332 Statistical annex NOMENCLATURE
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334 Statistical annex Population, u
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336 Statistical annex SOURCES OF DA
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338 Enhancing Urban Safety and Secu
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410 TABLE C.7 continued Enhancing U
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INDEX ACHR (Asian Coalition for Hou
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Index 435 security of tenure 134 co
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Index 437 domestic abuse see intima
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Index 439 hazard management 169 haz
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Index 441 Kosovo, security of tenur
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Index 443 participation 38, 296-299
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Index 445 individual 34-35 municipa
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Index 447 gun ownership 78 Homeless
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