Global Report on Human Settlements 2007 - PoA-ISS

More documents

Recommendations

Info

52 Urban crime and violence Contact crimes jeopardize the physical and psychological wellbeing of victims, with potentially devastating results Of all property crimes, burglary is probably the most invasive offence, often carrying with it long-term psychological impacts on victims, stigma for neighbourhoods and… implications for planning offences generally includes homicides, assaults (including those suffered as a result of domestic violence), robbery (including armed robbery), rape and, in some jurisdictions, kidnapping. It may also include some relatively minor offences, such as pick-pocketing. Though usually less frequent than property crimes, personal crimes such as homicides and robberies imperil individuals and communities, with significant social and economic impacts to families, cities and states. They often have significant long-term impacts on the way in which urban areas are perceived and used by residents and outsiders, and how they are regenerated (or ignored) by public agencies. Contact crimes jeopardize the physical and psychological well-being of victims, with potentially devastating results. This chapter focuses on homicides and robberies as some of the most well documented of these crimes in more detail below. Property crimes Property offences constitute the second category of crime and are considered less serious than personal crimes. Nonetheless, they significantly affect individual victims and negatively influence the overall quality of urban life. Across all crime categories, larceny and thefts are generally the most frequent individual offences, with rates that usually far exceed either violent crimes or those of other types of property crime. The vast majority of all crimes are, indeed, minor in most places. There are, of course, exceptions to this, such as in Accra, Ghana, where assaults were the highest individual category of offences reported between 1980 and 1996. 19 There are a considerable number of ‘lesser’ property crimes, including vandalism and ‘quality of life’ crimes, such as graffiti and damage to property. The most serious property crimes generally include burglary, larceny and theft (the latter two are often, but not always, synonymous with each other depending upon jurisdiction), arson and other property-related offences that are specific to localities. Of all property crimes, burglary is probably the most invasive offence, often carrying with it long-term psychological impacts on victims, stigma for neighbourhoods and districts, and implications for planning and design. Burglary is considered in more detail below. Crimes against public order A third broad category includes moral infractions and crimes against public order and welfare and may include anti-social behaviour, as well as some types of sexual offences and infractions, such as corruption, trafficking of human beings, firearms and drugs. As an example of the wide range of offences in this category, Ghana includes currency offences, treason, sedition, mutiny, rioting, publication of false rumour, evasion of military service, prostitution and food safety violations, among others. 20 Other much less serious offences and disorder in this category of crime can include public intoxication and criminal damage. Fraud, cyber-crime (including identity theft), other so-called ‘white collar’ crimes and environmental offences may be variably included in the crimes against public order category or even fall within the civil law domain as distinct from criminal offences, depending upon jurisdiction, seriousness or other factors related to the specific circumstance. Trafficking offences are often the province of organized and relatively sophisticated groups at global, national and urban levels. The growth of international criminal enterprises, such as trafficking, is associated with broader global trends, facilitated by weak or failing formal institutions and abetted by complicit or fragile civil societies. Data issues There are several important caveats to interpreting the data that follows. These include: • Methods of recording and counting crime vary from country to country, and there are no accepted universal standards on producing and presenting crime statistics. • Crime reporting is related to the prevalence of law enforcement and to peoples’ willingness to come forward, both of which vary by country – in virtually all jurisdictions many crimes are not reported to authorities. • Crime victimization data obtained through surveys tends to be higher quality than police reports, even though they, too, rely on people’s memories and willingness to cooperate. • Definitions of what constitutes a crime differ widely and may not be comparable by virtue of cultural, social and legal system differences. • Crime data quality diverges widely and is related to resource availability – hence, poor nations are less likely than wealthy ones to have complete and accurate crime data. Comparisons of crime data between and among regions, countries and cities should therefore be seen in light of these limitations. Moreover, it is important to note that trends can be best understood in terms of a long-term perspective as a means to understanding regional and national differences. Although there are differences among countries, four general approaches are commonly used to count crime. These include: crimes that are reported or known to the police; information gathered on the arrest of persons; data based on convictions for crimes; and crime rates obtained from victim surveys audits. Offender interviews and hospital admission records are also employed to collect crime data, although their use is not as widespread as police reports, arrest and conviction rates and victim survey data. While each of these measures offers insights into crime conditions and trends, all crime data must be carefully balanced against the numerous data collection problems noted above. Recognizing these issues, attention is paid to certain conventional crimes that research and victim surveys suggest as having significant impact on urban dwellers, with compounding effects on the larger communities of which they are a part. These include contact crimes such as homicides (an indicator of violent crime, generally) and
Urban crime and violence: Conditions and trends 53 robbery, as well as property crime, indicated by burglary – a non-violent but nonetheless serious crime. Furthermore, this chapter considers a variety of public order offences, such as corruption, organized crime and trafficking offences, including drugs, arms and human trafficking. 10,000 8000 North America THE INCIDENCE AND VARIABILITY OF CRIME AND VIOLENCE Crimes and violence are unevenly distributed across the globe and within nations and cities. Nevertheless, they are pernicious, continuing threats to human security, generally, and especially for the poor, who are disproportionately victimized as individuals and whose communities are strongly affected. While crime and violence must be considered through the lens of unique local contexts and circumstances, trends in crime and violence can also be seen at much broader levels. This section reviews some of the global, regional, national and city data for serious contact, property and public order crimes. <strong>Global</strong> and regional crime conditions and trends Figure 3.1, based on United Nations surveys, shows that crime rates at both the global and regional levels have increased steadily over the period of 1980 to 2000, rising about 30 per cent from 2300 crimes per 100,000 to over 3000 per 100,000 individuals. 21 But this is not the case for all regions. Some crime rates, such as those in North America, fell significantly over these two decades even though the general level of crime was higher there than for other regions, except for the European Union (EU) beginning in approximately 1999. Crime in Latin America and the Caribbean regions rose during this period, reflecting, in part, political transitions from autocracy to democracy and civil conflict. Data for the EU disguises the fact that states have experienced variable crime rates, with increases in some Eastern European nations and decreases in some Western European nations. African data has been excluded since only a relatively few African states provided crime survey data for the indicated period. Comparatively high general crime levels in higherincome regions of North America and Europe are explained by the greater propensity of people to report crimes of all types to the police, whereas in middle- and lower-income nations, serious offences, such as violent contact offences, are more often reported than property crimes. Crime rates in middle-income nations are likely to increase as the spread of technology offers more opportunities for things to steal and as people have increased abilities to report crimes to the police. 22 Although the levels of crime are higher in North America, this is also where the most significant declines are evident. Despite many competing explanations for the decrease, one suggestion attributes this to countermeasures that have been enacted, especially in the US. 23 Nonetheless, 6000 4000 2000 0 All countries of the world European Union 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 much of the decline in crimes in North America is due to the decrease in property crimes, which constitute the vast bulk of crimes and are more likely to be reported in industrialized countries vis-à-vis developing ones. National crime conditions and trends Latin America and the Caribbean When various types of crimes for all income groups are aggregated cross-nationally, the sums are staggering. For example, there were almost 50 million property and violent crimes recorded by police in 34 industrialized and industrializing countries in 2001 alone. 24 These nations account for less than one fifth of the world’s population according to 2006 estimates, 25 which makes the numbers even more compelling when it is considered that many crimes are not reported. Moreover, crime statistics routinely undercount poor victims and those from marginalized communities, where crime is likely to be more pervasive. Large nations such as the US, Russia and the UK consistently account for a major share of crime incidents, although their rates have varied considerably within each country over the past decade. Moreover, crime rates differ significantly between countries and are not always explained by sheer population size. For example, based on 2001 data, the US had about six times the crime rate of Cyprus (3658 crimes per 100,000 versus 595 crimes per 100,000 individuals), but 383 times Counts and rates decreased 10 (19%) Counts increased but rates decreased 4 (8%) Counts and rates increased 38 (73%) Figure 3.1 Total recorded crime trends per 100,000 individuals in selected regions of the world Source: Shaw et al, 2003, p42 Crime statistics routinely undercount poor victims and those from marginalized communities, where crime is likely to be more pervasive Figure 3.2 Police-recorded crimes and attempts for 52 countries: Changes in counts and rates (2001–2002) 26 Source: Adapted from UNODC, 2005a, Table 2.1
Page 3:
ENHANCING URBAN SAFETY AND SECURITY
Page 6 and 7:
First published by Earthscan in the
Page 8 and 9:
INTRODUCTION Enhancing Urban Safety
Page 10 and 11:
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The preparation of
Page 12 and 13:
x Enhancing Urban Safety and Securi
Page 14 and 15:
xii Enhancing Urban Safety and Secu
Page 16 and 17:
xiv Enhancing Urban Safety and Secu
Page 18 and 19:
xvi Enhancing Urban Safety and Secu
Page 20 and 21:
xviii Enhancing Urban Safety and Se
Page 22 and 23:
LIST OF FIGURES, BOXES AND TABLES F
Page 24 and 25:
xxii Enhancing Urban Safety and Sec
Page 26 and 27:
xxiv Enhancing Urban Safety and Sec
Page 28 and 29:
xxvi Enhancing Urban Safety and Sec
Page 30 and 31:
xxviii Enhancing Urban Safety and S
Page 32 and 33:
xxx Enhancing Urban Safety and Secu
Page 34:
xxxii Enhancing Urban Safety and Se
Page 38 and 39: 4 Understanding Urban Safety and Se
Page 41 and 42: 1 CHAPTER CURRENT THREATS TO URBAN
Page 43 and 44: Current threats to urban safety and
Page 57 and 58: 2 CHAPTER VULNERABILITY, RISK AND R
Page 59 and 60: Vulnerability, risk and resilience:
Page 63 and 64: 29 simply ‘give up’ in the face
Page 75: Vulnerability, risk and resilience:
Page 80 and 81: 46 Urban crime and violence Box II.
Page 82 and 83: 48 Urban crime and violence it has
Page 84 and 85: 50 Urban crime and violence Formal
Page 88 and 89: 54 Urban crime and violence Per 100
Page 90 and 91: 56 Urban crime and violence Burglar
Page 92 and 93: 58 Urban crime and violence Percent
Page 94 and 95: 60 Urban crime and violence Figure
Page 96 and 97: 62 Urban crime and violence Table 3
Page 98 and 99: 64 Urban crime and violence Youth g
Page 102 and 103: 68 Urban crime and violence Type of
Page 104 and 105: 70 Urban crime and violence From a
Page 106 and 107: 72 Urban crime and violence One vio
Page 108 and 109: 74 Urban crime and violence High ho
Page 110 and 111: 76 Urban crime and violence Abused
Page 112 and 113: 78 Urban crime and violence General
Page 116 and 117: 82 Urban crime and violence porate
Page 118 and 119: 4 CHAPTER URBAN CRIME AND VIOLENCE:
Page 120 and 121: 86 Urban crime and violence UN-Habi
Page 122 and 123: 88 Urban crime and violence Box 4.2
Page 124 and 125: 90 Urban crime and violence Box 4.4
Page 126 and 127: 92 Urban crime and violence Legisla
Page 128 and 129: 94 Urban crime and violence above w
Page 130 and 131: 96 Urban crime and violence Campaig
Page 132 and 133: 98 Urban crime and violence Availab
Page 134 and 135: 100 Urban crime and violence Box 4.
Page 136 and 137:
102 Urban crime and violence In som
Page 138 and 139:
104 Urban crime and violence Initia
Page 140 and 141:
106 Urban crime and violence The mo
Page 142:
108 Urban crime and violence Vander
Page 146 and 147:
112 Security of tenure Box III.1 Se
Page 148 and 149:
5 CHAPTER SECURITY OF TENURE: CONDI
Page 150 and 151:
116 Security of tenure Table 5.1 A
Page 152 and 153:
118 Security of tenure Fully legal
Page 154 and 155:
120 Security of tenure Box 5.4 Secu
Page 156 and 157:
122 Security of tenure Urban tenure
Page 158 and 159:
124 Security of tenure At least 2 m
Page 160 and 161:
126 Security of tenure Market-based
Page 162 and 163:
128 Security of tenure Box 5.11 Urb
Page 164 and 165:
130 Security of tenure Operation Mu
Page 166 and 167:
132 Security of tenure Control of l
Page 168 and 169:
134 Security of tenure Box 5.18 Sec
Page 170 and 171:
136 Security of tenure NOTES 1 Habi
Page 172 and 173:
138 Security of tenure Box 6.1 The
Page 174 and 175:
140 Security of tenure It would be
Page 176 and 177:
142 Security of tenure Box 6.7 Land
Page 178 and 179:
144 Security of tenure Box 6.10 Wha
Page 180 and 181:
146 Security of tenure Box 6.12 Evi
Page 182 and 183:
148 Security of tenure Box 6.15 Con
Page 184 and 185:
150 Security of tenure Box 6.18 Vio
Page 186 and 187:
152 Security of tenure The
Page 188 and 189:
154 Security of tenure Box 6.24 Lan
Page 190 and 191:
156 Security of tenure The state is
Page 192 and 193:
158 Security of tenure Housing righ
Page 197 and 198:
Over the last three decades, natura
Page 199 and 200:
Introduction 165 One of the key tre
Page 201 and 202:
7 CHAPTER DISASTER RISK: CONDITIONS
Page 203 and 204:
Disaster risk: Conditions, trends a
Page 205 and 206:
Page 207 and 208:
Page 209 and 210:
Page 211 and 212:
Page 213 and 214:
Page 215 and 216:
Page 217 and 218:
Page 219 and 220:
Page 221 and 222:
Page 223 and 224:
Page 225 and 226:
Page 227 and 228:
Page 229 and 230:
8 CHAPTER POLICY RESPONSES TO DISAS
Page 231 and 232:
Policy responses to disaster risk 1
Page 233 and 234:
Page 235 and 236:
Page 237 and 238:
Page 239 and 240:
Page 241 and 242:
Page 243 and 244:
Page 245 and 246:
Page 247 and 248:
Page 249 and 250:
Page 251:
Page 254 and 255:
220 Natural and human-made disaster
Page 256 and 257:
Page 258 and 259:
Page 260 and 261:
Page 262 and 263:
Page 264 and 265:
Page 266:
Page 270 and 271:
236 Towards safer and more secure c
Page 272 and 273:
Page 274 and 275:
Page 276 and 277:
Page 278 and 279:
Page 280 and 281:
Page 282 and 283:
Page 284 and 285:
Page 286 and 287:
Page 288 and 289:
Page 290 and 291:
Page 292 and 293:
Page 294 and 295:
Page 296 and 297:
11 CHAPTER ENHANCING TENURE SECURIT
Page 298 and 299:
Page 300 and 301:
Page 302 and 303:
Page 304 and 305:
Page 306 and 307:
Page 308 and 309:
Page 310 and 311:
276 Enhancing Urban Safety and Secu
Page 312 and 313:
12 CHAPTER MITIGATING THE IMPACTS O
Page 314 and 315:
Page 316 and 317:
Page 318 and 319:
Page 320 and 321:
Page 322 and 323:
Page 324 and 325:
Page 326 and 327:
Page 328 and 329:
Page 330 and 331:
Page 332 and 333:
Page 334:
Page 338 and 339:
304 Summary of case studies Since i
Page 340 and 341:
306 Summary of case studies • The
Page 342 and 343:
308 Summary of case studies tions w
Page 344 and 345:
310 Summary of case studies environ
Page 346 and 347:
312 Summary of case studies others.
Page 348 and 349:
314 Summary of case studies purpose
Page 350 and 351:
316 Summary of case studies These e
Page 352 and 353:
318 Summary of case studies develop
Page 354 and 355:
320 Summary of case studies tion ex
Page 356 and 357:
322 Summary of case studies Housing
Page 358 and 359:
324 Summary of case studies Prolong
Page 360:
326 Summary of case studies momentu
Page 364 and 365:
330 Statistical annex Islands, Micr
Page 366 and 367:
332 Statistical annex NOMENCLATURE
Page 368 and 369:
334 Statistical annex Population, u
Page 370 and 371:
336 Statistical annex SOURCES OF DA
Page 372 and 373:
Page 374 and 375:
Page 376 and 377:
Page 378 and 379:
Page 380 and 381:
Page 382 and 383:
Page 384 and 385:
Page 386 and 387:
Page 388 and 389:
Page 390 and 391:
Page 392 and 393:
Page 394 and 395:
Page 396 and 397:
Page 398 and 399:
Page 400 and 401:
Page 402 and 403:
Page 404 and 405:
Page 406 and 407:
Page 408 and 409:
Page 410 and 411:
Page 412 and 413:
Page 414 and 415:
Page 416 and 417:
Page 418 and 419:
Page 420 and 421:
Page 422 and 423:
Page 424 and 425:
Page 426 and 427:
Page 428 and 429:
Page 430 and 431:
Page 432 and 433:
Page 434 and 435:
Page 436 and 437:
Page 438 and 439:
Page 440 and 441:
Page 442 and 443:
Page 444 and 445:
410 TABLE C.7 continued Enhancing U
Page 446 and 447:
Page 448 and 449:
Page 450 and 451:
Page 452 and 453:
Page 454 and 455:
Page 456 and 457:
Page 458 and 459:
Page 460 and 461:
Page 462 and 463:
Page 464 and 465:
Page 467 and 468:
INDEX ACHR (Asian Coalition for Hou
Page 469 and 470:
Index 435 security of tenure 134 co
Page 471 and 472:
Index 437 domestic abuse see intima
Page 473 and 474:
Index 439 hazard management 169 haz
Page 475 and 476:
Index 441 Kosovo, security of tenur
Page 477 and 478:
Index 443 participation 38, 296-299
Page 479 and 480:
Index 445 individual 34-35 municipa
Page 481 and 482:
Index 447 gun ownership 78 Homeless
show all

Global Report on Human Settlements 2007 - PoA-ISS

Create successful ePaper yourself

Delete template?

Save as template?