Exploring the Unknown - NASA's History Office

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26 The first Sputnik in October 1957 changed the picture radically, and we began to look at these possibilities much more seriously. If satellite communication ever becomes a reality, it will be no exception to past Bell System experience. That is, it will necessarily be preceded by the established pattern of meticulous study and experimental work. At the moment, we do not have enough knowledge or experience to describe in detail a practicable system or to state exactly how it might be used. We can do little more than speculate on the various possibilities. One proposal is to place satellites 22,400 miles above the equator. At this height, a satellite would rotate in step with the earth and seem always to hang in the same position in the sky. Such satellites would be “active” relay stations—that is, they would be equipped with receivers and transmitters, and probably with accurately pointed directive antennas. This is an apparently attractive proposal, but for the present it raises at least two serious questions: the problems of accurate rocketry to launch and orient such satellites are indeed formidable, and the problems of equipment life in such relay stations are, to put it mildly, severe. A second proposal is to place active satellites in orbit only a few thousand miles above the earth. These would not be stationary in relation to the earth, but with a sufficient number of them, signals could be relayed from each whenever it is in a usable section of its orbit. With this second proposal, rocket accuracy is somewhat eased, but equipment life in a low-altitude relay station is as serious a question as in the case of the 22,400 mile satellite. With low-altitude satellites, however, a transmitter and receiver on the satellite are not essential. Instead, one may put in orbit a group of passive reflectors. Large, high-power transmitters would then transmit to a satellite reflector, and signals would bounce from it and thus reach a distant receiver. The satellites would be aluminized plastic spheres— “balloons” perhaps 100 feet in diameter—with a high reflectivity to microwaves. As an exercise to explore possibilities and problems, we have studied in some detail a theoretical system using passive satellites for transatlantic broad-band transmission. As shown in the illustration [of the passive-reflector satellite], the terminals were considered to be in Newfoundland and on an island in the Hebrides off Scotland. The satellites are to be imagined as traveling in polar orbits. Regions of Visibility THE HISTORY OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS On the polar projection shown below, closed contour lines are drawn for various heights of orbit. These define areas in which a single satellite would be simultaneously visible to both the Newfoundland and Scotland terminals. At a height of 2,000-miles, for example, a satellite would be visible to both terminals anywhere within the 2,000-mile contour, even along the outer edges of the area. The first of the accompanying tables (see below) shows calculations relating to the orbit [327] heights. The shortest and longest visibility times in the second and third horizontal rows are of particular interest. For the l,000-mile height, as an example, the zero for shortest visibility time indicates that for some passes, a satellite would not be visible at all at both of the two terminals. A 3,000-mile satellite, however, would be visible at least 31.4 minutes, and as long as 55.4 minutes, for every revolution around the earth. On the average it would be visible 22 percent of the time. Thus, even with only one satellite, one might get quite long stretches of broadband communication.
EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 27 Oval-shaped areas define regions in which polar-orbit satellites at various heights would be simultaneously visible to both terminals at Newfoundland and Scotland. The usable areas would be somewhat smaller, however, since transmission is difficult when [the] satellite is near the horizon. Visibility Times at Various Heights of Orbit Height of Satellite Above Surface of Earth in Miles 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 Time of one revolution (minutes) 100.4 118.0 136.6 155.0 175.2 195.2 Shortest visibility (minutes) 0 0 8.0 12.5 23.8 31.4 Longest visibility (minutes) 14.7 20.0 29.6 36.6 46.2 55.4 Average visibility (percent) 3.5 6.9 12.9 17.7 19.6 22.0 Assumptions: Terminals in Newfoundland and Hebrides; polar orbits; refraction effects ignored; and visibility from horizon to horizon.
Page 1 and 2: Exploring Unknown the Selected Docu
Page 3 and 4: I-11 President John F. Kennedy to H
Page 5 and 6: II-2 S.M. Greenfield and W.W. Kello
Page 7 and 8: II-23 Arnold W. Frutkin, Memorandum
Page 9 and 10: II-46-II-48 Gregory W. Withee, Acti
Page 11 and 12: III-18 “Space Commercialization M
Page 13 and 14: Acknowledgments This volume is the
Page 15 and 16: Introduction One of the most import
Page 17 and 18: The editorial method we adopted for
Page 19 and 20: Joseph N. Pelton is a professor of
Page 21 and 22: GAO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Page 23 and 24: Chapter One The History of Satellit
Page 25 and 26: EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 3 satellite f
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your bill and some of the major asp
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 79 1934, as a
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 81 or appropr
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U.S.C. 310) [citation in margin:
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interest; and (iii) an evaluation o
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 87 ment on Ap
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 89 aspects of
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Document title: Memorandum from J.
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 93 tiated by
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cations satellite system rather tha
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___________________________________
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telegram are as follows: (A) Policy
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tems. Diversion of Government traff
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quality of services and charges for
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 105 tions is
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 107 A. Techno
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Report of the United States Delegat
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States, Vatican City State, Venezue
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 113 structure
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 115 U.S. posi
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 117 agreed th
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 119 VII. Futu
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 121 to explor
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 123 (b) to af
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 125 the natio
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 127 and Order
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 129 own stron
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 131 We are en
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 133 and meeti
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 135 Plumbrook
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cant background information and wor
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 139 Applicati
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earth terminals, high-gain satellit
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20 watts of power per kilogram. New
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 145 the devel
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No additional items were reviewed.
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Specifically, this report concludes
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[55] THE SECRETARY OF COMMERCE Wash
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A memorandum of law concerning Arti
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156 OBSERVING THE EARTH FROM SPACE
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196 scanned from extreme altitudes
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198 winds, cumulus clouds that have
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204 required for Project TIROS in e
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212 [1] [rubber stamped: “AUG 15
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214 These two letters, one from Con
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220 Budget Authority (BA) and Outla
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224 Document II-11 Document title:
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232 International Applications Area
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236 Agricultural Geographic Geologi
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240 that a number of important user
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242 [1] For the Record SAR/Robert G
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244 make every effort to ensure tha
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246 monitor the earth’s volcanoes
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250 with us in this area). Encourag
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254 the memorandum be explicitly br
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256 should officially participate i
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258 [1] APR 14, 1970 Honorable Walt
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260 One persuasive argument for cre
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262 General Assembly’s First Comm
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264 [1] July 24, 1974 Summary OBSER
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270 in the months following the lau
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274 their goals by making improved
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278 recommended that continuity of
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280 gap in data availability would
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282 ment—considering the budgetar
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284 vices required for a multipurpo
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286 and for maintaining archives of
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292 D. Conclusions and Consequences
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298 Assumptions This document was d
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304 training and technology transfe
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306 the payment of appropriate fees
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308 • The sub-issues that will ne
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314 development, either alone or in
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316 rity and foreign policy implica
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320 report or explicitly address th
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330 [no pagination] PUBLIC LAW 98-3
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344 AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS
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346 [no pagination] For Immediate R
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348 This management plan spells out
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350 funding adjustments as agreed t
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352 Includes: • Ground System Dev
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368 TITLE VI—PROHIBITION OF COMME
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370 Document II-42 Honorable George
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372 The Honorable John H. Gibbons A
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374 (b) Make government-owned Lands
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376 The letter from NOAA’s Gregor
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378 There is currently considerable
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380 7. During periods when national
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Chapter Three Space as an Investmen
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 387 However,
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 389 sectors o
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 391 the devel
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 393 during th
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 395 Internati
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 397 Committee
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 399 are not s
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still many hurdles for the space in
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[1] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS EXPLORI
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 405 developme
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important role in raising funds for
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nomic growth. The focus was on aggr
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the quality of goods and services d
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findings indicated that most of the
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This study showed an overall seven-
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sible to forecast the impacts on ma
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Our formulation of γ is as follows
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 421 Table 4 I
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already shown above (Table 5) the m
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Significance of Findings Significan
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David Cross and I will be glad to d
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 429 • The d
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 431 [i] NASA
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 433 The major
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their momentous insight when they d
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The direct social impact of NASA co
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[32] Microwave Systems Internal Gas
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[34] Internal Gas Dynamics Telemetr
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Impact of NASA Combinations High Mo
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Percentage of Economic Impact Alrea
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“less” to a “more” preferre
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[8] 4. NASTRAN NASTRAN (NASA Struct
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The following sections will discuss
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Diff. From Baseline, Thousands Figu
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 455 expenditu
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[2] II. CREATING OPPORTUNITIES FOR
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10. Private Launch Ranges: The Admi
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products and services to the avoida
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— With respect to technologies ge
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 465 presence
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 467 (c) DoD,
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(4) To stimulate private sector inv
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 471 (iii)Supp
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develop design guidelines for futur
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B. SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS Satelli
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Tended Facilities (MTFs) each offer
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amount of R&D activity which can be
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Long-Term Prospects for Development
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[261] Environment: 1) Monitoring po
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 485 ly possib
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In many religions the wealth of the
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 489 [no pagin
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 491 The follo
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 493 commercia
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 495 The first
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 497 tion was
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August 3, 1983 Space Commercializat
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 501 Outline o
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 503 space ind
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 505 guide, di
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of a dollar of profit from future o
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Return on Investment*—$M 50 40 30
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the desired average expected return
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Patents Trade Secrets Liabilities I
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Risk Adjusted Return on Investment
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 517 Implement
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As they look to the turn of the cen
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Exports (Dollar Per Capita) $500 $4
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Supply (Years) Rate of Increase 200
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 525 Table 1.
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Investment Cost Per Satellite Voice
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 529 (4) Altho
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For five of the thirty-two the terr
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Projected Annual and Cumulative Rev
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 535 growth, a
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 537 that firm
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this study could exercise the syste
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Our recent work with live cell mate
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[no page number] Annual Gross Sales
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to ensure that its accounting syste
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Proposal for Enhancing NASA Technol
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e) A Special Mission Development Di
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“NASA Social Impact,” I have su
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flow of technology information to s
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1976. This figure includes net bene
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 557 It is imp
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 559 Document
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 561 earlier b
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Finally, the medical end use catego
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 565 (3) provi
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 567 Effective
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 569 [10] A br
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 571 [14] POLI
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 573 activitie
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NASA’s technology transfer progra
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EXPLORING THE UNKNOWN 577 Tech Brie
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Ralph Braibanti joined the Departme
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F Philip J. Farley (1916- ) earned
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Lyndon B. Johnson (1908-1973) (D-TX
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M Leonard H. Marks was one of the o
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Robert C. Seamans, Jr. (1918- ), ha
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Robert M. White (1923- ) served as
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Bullington, Kenneth, 25 Bush, Georg
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Defense Satellite Communications Sy
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I Indiana University, 388 Initial D
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METOP satellite series, 166 Midwest
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O O’Connell, James D., 91-95, 99-
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and “Long-Term Prospects for Deve
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Reference Works, NASA SP-4000 The N
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SP-4207 not published. Compton, W.
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