Milk-and-Dairy-Products-in-Human-Nutrition-FAO

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Chapter 5 – Dairy components, products and human health 211 in healthy males, consumption of this CLA isomer failed to lower LDL-cholesterol when consumed in amounts exceeding that currently present in dairy foods (Tricon et al., 2006). Furthermore, the anti-atherosclerotic effects of CLA demonstrated in animal studies may not be the result of its effect on lipids, but rather may be related to another mechanism, for example an anti-inflammatory effect (McCrorie et al., 2011). Similarly, the anti-diabetic properties of CLA cannot be fully determined from current epidemiological evidence, considering that few studies undertook rigorous measures of insulin resistance. Combined with small sample sizes and other study limitations, overall results show no effect of CLA on glucose and insulin (McCrorie et al., 2011). Studies on animal models have shown that CLA has antiinflammatory properties and may play a role in the management of chronic inflammation, such as inflammatory bowel disease and rheumatoid arthritis. However, similar to the other health outcomes described in this section, results from human studies investigating the effect of products that are naturally enriched with CLA on inflammation have been mixed (McCrorie et al., 2011). The promising beneficial effects seen in some animal models have not yet been reflected in human studies. Indeed, FAO and WHO recently stated that there are insufficient data to provide a recommendation regarding CLA and cancers (FAO and WHO, 2010a). Trans fatty acids Ruminant trans fatty acids (rTFAs) are found naturally in dairy and meat products and are structurally different from industrial TFAs (iTFAs), which are predominantly a by-product of industrial processing, usually in the form of partially-hydrogenated vegetable oils (PHVO) (FAO and WHO, 2010a). Vaccenic acid constitutes the main TFA in milk fat and it can be partially converted into CLA in humans. In light of the potential health benefits of CLA, studies have attempted to increase vaccenic acid in milk fat (Cruz-Hernandez et al., 2007, and references therein). The justification for this would need to be supported by conclusive evidence that CLA has a positive impact in humans and that vaccenic acid from ruminant sources is not a risk factor for CVD (Givens and Gibbs, 2008). FAO and WHO (2010a) found convincing evidence that iTFA increases CHD risk factors and CHD events and probable evidence of an increased risk of fatal CHD, sudden cardiac death, metabolic syndrome and diabetes from iTFA. Similarly, Bendsen et al. (2011) recently concluded that iTFA may be positively related to CHD while rTFA may not be, although the authors note that it is not feasible to make a firm conclusion based on current evidence. In relation to cancer, FAO and WHO (2010a) stated that “there is not a large body of evidence to suggest either a deleterious or a beneficial effect of trans fats on cancers” but there is a possible increased risk of prostate cancer. The quantity of trans fats consumed may also be a factor in the disease risk. Present knowledge on TFA intakes in most countries is not robust. Estimates of the intake of TFAs are generally obtained from dietary assessment surveys and the use of food composition tables which may have incomplete TFA data (Stender, Astrup and Dyerberg, 2008; Uauy et al., 2009). There are large variations in the TFA content of snack and convenience foods (FAO and WHO, 2010a). The concentration of TFAs in ruminant fats varies with season and animal feed. The total intake of TFAs was investigated in the Transfair study in a number of European
212 Milk and dairy products in human nutrition countries in 1996 and the average daily intake varied from about 1.5 g in Greece and Italy to 5.4 g in Iceland (Stender, Astrup and Dyerberg, 2008, and references therein). FAO and WHO (2010a) reported that “in adults, the estimated average daily ruminant TFA intake in the US is about 1.5 g for men and 0.9 g for women. Average intake for both men and women, is 1.2 g, which corresponds to 0.5 % E”. Considering these variations, estimates of TFA intake should be interpreted with caution (Stender, Astrup and Dyerberg, 2008). Mozaffarian, Aro and Willett (2009), who reviewed the evidence for effects of TFA consumption on CHD, found that the evidence from observational studies suggests that higher CHD risk is related to iTFA consumption rather than rTFA. “Because ruminant fat contains low levels of TFA (usually
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MILK dairy products in and human nu
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cover photo credits front: © EADD/
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iv 2.7 Emerging issues and challeng
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vi 5.2 Dairy components 209 5.2.1 M
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viii 9.2 Key trends and emerging is
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x 2.5 Per capita energy intake from
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xii Preface Billions of people arou
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xiv The publication serves a variet
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xvi (Research Assistant Professor,
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xviii Permissions granted by extern
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xx FPCM fat and protein-corrected m
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xxii Contributors Anthony Bennett j
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xxiv from the National University o
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xxvi Award 2010 along with colleagu
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2 Milk and dairy products in human
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11 Chapter 2 Milk availability: Cur
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Chapter 2 - Milk availability: Curr
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Table 2.5 Volume and share of milk
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41 Chapter 3 Milk and dairy product
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Chapter 3 - Milk and dairy product
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Table 3.1 Proximate composition of
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Table 3.2 (continued) Vitamins Ribo
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Table 3.4 Mineral composition in mi
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Table 3.6 (continued) Riboflavin Vi
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103 Chapter 4 Milk and dairy produc
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Chapter 4 - Milk and dairy products
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Table 4.1 Nutrient content of full
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Table 4.2 Contents of selected nutr
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Table 4.4 Summary of recent review
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Table 4.4 (continued) Reference Die
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Chapter 6 - Safety and quality 261
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276 Milk and dairy products in huma
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Table 7.1 (continued) Country/organ
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Table 7.1 (continued) 308 Country/o
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