Milk-and-Dairy-Products-in-Human-Nutrition-FAO

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Chapter 6 – Safety and quality 245 Table 6.1 Main food-safety hazards Biological hazards Chemical hazards Physical hazards Pathogenic bacteria (including toxin-producing bacteria) Toxigenic moulds/fungi Parasites Viruses Other biological hazards Source: FAO, 2006. Naturally occurring toxins Direct and indirect food additives Pesticide residues Veterinary drug residues Heavy metals Environmental contaminants (e.g. dioxins) Chemical contaminants from packaging material Allergens Metal fragments Bone fragments Glass pieces Insect parts/fragments Jewellery Stones Hair 6.2.1 Biological hazards Milk and dairy products can harbour a variety of micro-organisms, including many zoonotic bacteria and some viruses (e.g. retroviruses and cytomegalovirus) (Kaufmann, Sher and Ahmed, 2002). The main pathogenic micro-organisms of concern and related control measures are given in Table 6.2. Where an animal is healthy, the microbiological quality of milk at the time of milking is generally good; milk from the udder contains very few bacteria (although it may include human pathogens) and the natural inhibitory systems in milk prevent a significant rise in microbial cell counts for the first three or four hours at ambient temperatures (Jay, Loessner and Golden, 2005). Once milk is secreted from the udder, it can be contaminated from many sources (air, faeces, bedding material, soil, feed, water, equipment, animal hides and people). The prevalence of pathogens in milk is influenced by numerous factors such as farm size, number of animals on the farm, dairy herd health, hygiene in the dairy farm environment, farm management practices, geographic location and season (Oliver, Jayarao and Almeida, 2005). In the past, the principal pathogens of concern in milk were Mycobacterium bovis (cause of bovine tuberculosis and a form of human tuberculosis), Brucella abortus (brucellosis) and Coxiella burnettii (Q fever). While these have been largely or entirely eliminated from the dairy herd in many countries they have remained endemic in many regions (Kazwala et al., 1998; Zumárraga et al., 2012). Furthermore, M. bovis is now re-emerging in some regions where it had previously been eliminated (Tenguria et al., 2011). Food-borne pathogens associated with raw milk now of concern include Campylobacter spp., pathogenic strains of Escherichia coli (e.g. Shiga toxin -producing E. coli [STEC]), Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella spp. (Fox and Cogan, 2004). Bacillus cereus, Yersinia enterocolitica and Cronobacter spp. can also be of concern. Dairy cattle are a recognized reservoir of Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., Clostridium spp., STEC, Cryptosporidium parvum, Brucella spp. and M. bovis in certain countries. Other pathogens may contaminate the milk from external sources; for example, Listeria species are widespread in nature and live naturally in plants and the soil environment (Oliver, Jayarao and Almeida, 2005). Listeria monocytogenes, which can be
246 Milk and dairy products in human nutrition Table 6.2 Main pathogenic micro-organisms associated with milk and dairy products Pathogen Main source of infection Main means of on-farm control Main means of control in processing and food handling Bacillus cereus Via milk No effective control measures presently available Good manufacturing and hygiene practices. Holding cooked foods at either >60 °C or
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MILK dairy products in and human nu
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cover photo credits front: © EADD/
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iv 2.7 Emerging issues and challeng
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vi 5.2 Dairy components 209 5.2.1 M
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viii 9.2 Key trends and emerging is
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x 2.5 Per capita energy intake from
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xii Preface Billions of people arou
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xiv The publication serves a variet
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xvi (Research Assistant Professor,
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xviii Permissions granted by extern
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xx FPCM fat and protein-corrected m
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xxii Contributors Anthony Bennett j
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xxiv from the National University o
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xxvi Award 2010 along with colleagu
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2 Milk and dairy products in human
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11 Chapter 2 Milk availability: Cur
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Chapter 2 - Milk availability: Curr
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Table 2.5 Volume and share of milk
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41 Chapter 3 Milk and dairy product
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Chapter 3 - Milk and dairy product
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Table 3.1 Proximate composition of
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Table 3.2 (continued) Vitamins Ribo
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Table 3.4 Mineral composition in mi
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Table 3.6 (continued) Riboflavin Vi
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103 Chapter 4 Milk and dairy produc
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Chapter 4 - Milk and dairy products
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Table 4.1 Nutrient content of full
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Table 4.2 Contents of selected nutr
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Table 4.4 Summary of recent review
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Table 4.4 (continued) Reference Die
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Annex Table 4.7 Milk and dairy prod
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Table 4.7 (continued) Region and co
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296 Milk and dairy products in huma
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Table 7.1 (continued) Country/organ
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Table 7.1 (continued) 308 Country/o
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