Milk-and-Dairy-Products-in-Human-Nutrition-FAO

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Chapter 5 – Dairy components, products and human health 213 n-3 fatty acids n-3 fatty acids are essential for normal physiological functioning and for the maintenance of health. There is convincing evidence that replacing SFAs with PUFAs decreases the risk of CHD and possible evidence that PUFA intake can reduce diabetes risk (FAO and WHO, 2010a). Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are two important long-chain n-3 PUFAs that may contribute to the prevention of CHD as well as possibly other degenerative diseases of aging (FAO and WHO, 2010a). Although humans have the capacity to convert α-linolenic acid (ALA) to EPA and DHA, the efficiency of conversion is low. Hence, EPA and DHA need to be provided in the diet. Fish and fish oils are rich sources of n-3 LC- PUFAs (Givens and Gibbs, 2008; FAO and WHO, 2010a). Efforts have been made to increase n-3 PUFAs in milk fat using animal feed strategies (Gebauer et al., 2006). Modest increases in EPA and DHA in cow milk can be achieved through the addition of fish oil or fish by-products to the cows’ diet but there is a risk of increasing the rTFA content (Givens and Gibbs, 2008; Bauman and Lock, 2010). Adding ALA in the form of plant oils and oilseeds has had little effect on EPA and DHA levels, possibly due to limited desaturase activity in the mammary gland of the dairy cow (Bauman and Lock, 2010). Another approach is to directly fortify milk with fish oils (further examined in Section 5.3.2). 5.2.2 Milk protein and health The major proteins found in milk are casein and whey proteins, with casein (α s1- , α s2- , β-, and κ-casein) accounting for approximately 78 percent of the protein in cow milk and whey proteins accounting for about 17 percent of the total protein. The main whey proteins are β-lactoglobulin, α-lactalbumin, serum albumin, immunoglobulins and glycomacropeptide; minor proteins include lactoferrin, insulin growth factor (IGF) and the lactoperoxidase system. As discussed in Chapter 3, milk proteins vary according to the source of the milk; for example, the ratio of whey to casein is higher in human milk and equine milk (60:40) than in cow milk (20:80) (Mølgaard et al., 2011). Milk is considered to be an excellent source of essential amino acids for human nutrition, growth, and development (Kanwar et al., 2009). Milk protein has a high protein-digestibility-corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) and the protein fraction contains peptides and other bioactive factors that may have specific effects on growth and recovery from undernutrition (Michaelsen et al., 2011). The impact of milk protein intake on body composition has not been fully elucidated, particularly at different life stages. Although some studies have reported that whey proteins and bioactive peptides in dairy may contribute to weight management, the evidence is contradictory. Cow-milk allergy (CMA) is probably the most serious issue associated with consumption of cow-milk protein and is generally diagnosed in children, although most children out-grow the condition by five years of age (Monaci et al., 2006). 46 46 The association between dairy proteins and growth and development, weight management and milk protein allergy is discussed in detail in Chapter 4.
214 Milk and dairy products in human nutrition Major proteins: casein and whey Casein, the predominant milk-protein component, is widely accepted to be a valuable source of amino acids for human growth. Traditionally, whey was considered the low-value by-product of cheese production, but in recent decades, whey components have attracted increasing commercial interest (Bulut Solak and Akin, 2012). Whey is the soluble fraction of milk that is separated from casein during cheese-making and casein manufacture in the dairy industry. The whey fraction contains a variety of proteins which can be separated by processes such as ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis to produce whey-protein concentrates. Whey proteins can be consumed as nutrition bars, powdered beverages or sports meals (Korhonen, 2009a; Hernández-Ledesma, Ramos and Gómez-Ruiz, 2011). Whey proteins, in addition to delivering amino acids, are reported to be involved in protection against infections, immune enhancement and development of the gut (Kanwar et al., 2009), as well as being a source of bioactive peptides. Some reports suggest that the wheyprotein complex is implicated in satiety and weight management, although it is not clear whether whey protein has a greater effect than other milk proteins in this regard (Korhonen, 2009a; Hernández-Ledesma, Ramos and Gómez-Ruiz, 2011; Mølgaard et al., 2011). α-lactalbumin, the predominant whey protein in human milk, is important in lactose synthesis. It has low immunogenicity, in contrast to β-lactoglobulin, which has been implicated in CMA. Recently, it has been suggested that it may have beneficial effects on sleep, mood and cognition because of its role in increasing serotonin levels (Korhonen, 2009a; Camfield et al., 2011). A number of health characteristics have been suggested for β-lactoglobulin, including antiviral and anticarcinogenic effects (Chatterton et al., 2006). Lactoferrin, an iron-binding whey protein, has been associated with positive antimicrobial effects, immune modulation and modulation of the gut microbiota (Kanwar et al., 2009; Tomita et al., 2009, Nagpal et al., 2012). A recent meta-analysis on the efficacy of lactoferrin in the eradication of Helicobacter pylori infection concluded that lactoferrin may have the potential to reduce H. pylori infection without adverse effects (Sachdeva and Nagpal, 2009). Heliobacter pylori is the causative agent of peptic ulcer diseases and chronic gastritis and is an important risk factor for development of gastric cancer (Salih, 2009); the global prevalence of H. pylori infection is more than 50 percent, mainly in developing countries. Excessive protein consumption may have adverse human health effects. The rate at which the gastrointestinal tract can absorb amino acids and the liver’s capacity to deaminate proteins and produce urea to excrete excess nitrogen are key issues. The safety and validity of increased protein intakes for both weight maintenance and muscle synthesis have been subjects of considerable debate and some health professionals, media and diet books advise consuming diets high in protein despite the lack of scientific data on the safety of increasing protein consumption (Bilsborough and Mann, 2006). Protein fragments: bioactive peptides Recent research has shown that milk proteins can act as precursors of bioactive peptides, which are protein fragments varying in size from two to 20 amino acids. These discrete amino-acid sequences are inactive within the parent protein molecule and can be released through the action of digestive proteases or via proteolytic enzymes,
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MILK dairy products in and human nu
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cover photo credits front: © EADD/
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iv 2.7 Emerging issues and challeng
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vi 5.2 Dairy components 209 5.2.1 M
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viii 9.2 Key trends and emerging is
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x 2.5 Per capita energy intake from
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xii Preface Billions of people arou
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xiv The publication serves a variet
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xvi (Research Assistant Professor,
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xviii Permissions granted by extern
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xx FPCM fat and protein-corrected m
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xxii Contributors Anthony Bennett j
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xxiv from the National University o
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xxvi Award 2010 along with colleagu
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2 Milk and dairy products in human
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11 Chapter 2 Milk availability: Cur
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Chapter 2 - Milk availability: Curr
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Table 2.5 Volume and share of milk
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41 Chapter 3 Milk and dairy product
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Chapter 3 - Milk and dairy product
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Table 3.1 Proximate composition of
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Table 3.2 (continued) Vitamins Ribo
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Table 3.4 Mineral composition in mi
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Table 3.6 (continued) Riboflavin Vi
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103 Chapter 4 Milk and dairy produc
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Chapter 4 - Milk and dairy products
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Table 4.1 Nutrient content of full
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Table 4.2 Contents of selected nutr
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Table 4.4 Summary of recent review
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Table 4.4 (continued) Reference Die
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Chapter 6 - Safety and quality 263
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Table 7.1 (continued) Country/organ
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Table 7.1 (continued) 308 Country/o
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