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AMANDA AMOS AND JUDITH MACKAY 333 Table 19.1 Prevalence of cigarette smoking among women in selected countries Prevalence (%) Date of survey Americas Bolivia 18 1998 Brazil 29 1995 Honduras 11 1988 Jamaica 13 1990 Mexico 18 1998 Trinidad and Tobago 8 1986 USA Europe 22 1999 Denmark 29 1999/2001 France 30 2000 Germany 31 1999/2001 Poland 25 1999/2001 Portugal 7 1995/6 Spain 25 1997 Russia 10 1997/8 UK Africa 26 1999/2001 Algeria 7 1997/8 Ivory Coast 2 1977 Lesotho 1 1992 South Africa 11 1998 Nigeria 2 1998 Swaziland 2 1994 Zaire Eastern Mediterranean 25 1990 Bahrain 6 1998 Bangladesh 24 2001 Egypt 2 1998 Sudan 1 2000 Tunisia South-East Asia 8 1997 India 3 1998/9 Indonesia 4 1998 Nepal 29 2001 Thailand Western Pacific 3 1999 Australia 18 2001 China 4 1996 Hong Kong 3 2000 Japan 13 1998 Malaysia 4 1996 New Zealand 25 2001 Singapore 3 1998 Source: Corrao et al. (2000), Mackay and Eriksen (2002).
334 TOBACCO AND WOMEN (Mackay and Eriksen 2002). In the Gulf region, about 8% of women smoke in contrast to 33% of men. The highest reported female smoking prevalence is 29% in Yemen (Mackay and Eriksen 2002). However, surveys may significantly underestimate smoking prevalence among women in these countries as, due to religious and cultural reasons, women may be reluctant to admit to their smoking. Europe. Prevalence rates in some countries in central and eastern Europe (Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, and Bulgaria) are now similar to those in western Europe, about 20–30% and are increasing. In countries such as Russia, where it is less acceptable for women to smoke in public places, the rates are generally lower, around 10–15%. Health effects of tobacco use Active tobacco use Because the health effects of smoking only become fully evident 40–50 years after the widespread uptake of smoking (Fig. 19.1), we have yet to see the full global impact of smoking on women’s health. This also means that most of what is known about the health effects of smoking has come from studies of cigarette smoking in developed countries which have tended to focus more on men than women. However, it is now clear that women around the world who smoke, as with male smokers, have markedly increased risks of many cancers, particularly lung cancer, heart disease, stroke, emphysema, and other fatal diseases. Indeed there is now evidence that the health effects of smoking for women may be even more serious than those for men. Smoking currently kills around half a million women in the world each year and this number is increasing rapidly (WHO 1999). Between 1950 and 2000, around 10 million women died from tobacco use. It is estimated that over the next 30 years, tobacco-attributable deaths among women will more than double (Jacobs 2001). In countries which have the longest history of widespread female smoking, such as the USA and UK, smoking is now the single most important preventable cause of premature death in women, accounting for at least a third of all deaths between the ages 35 and 69 (Amos 1996). It is also a major cause of inequalities in health among women (Gaunt-Richardson et al. 1999; USSG 2001). In the USA, as in the UK and Japan, lung cancer has now overtaken breast cancer as the leading cause of cancer deaths in women. Death rates from lung cancer among white women in the United States increased by 600% between 1950 and 2000 (USSG 2001). In 1950 lung cancer accounted for only 3% of all female cancer deaths, whereas in 2000 it accounted for an estimated 25%. WHO has identified the epidemic in lung cancer among women as most worrying health trend in Europe (WHO 1999). The number of women developing lung cancer in Europe doubled during the last half of the twentieth century. In developed countries cardiovascular diseases are the major cause of death among
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Tobacco and Public Health: Science
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Tobacco and Public Health: Science
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Preface Tobacco: The public health
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PREFACE vii The cigarette companies
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dramatically. Once more, I am not s
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it impairs quality of life for year
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documents and through litigation by
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PREFACE xv it will not succeed. Now
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Stratton, K., Shetty, P., Wallace,
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Contents Preface v C. Everett Koop
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27 Tobacco and pancreas cancer 479
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Contributors Amanda Amos Reader in
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Stephen S. Hecht University of Minn
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Cecily S. Ray Project Assistant Epi
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Abbreviations AAA Abdominal aortic
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Introduction The publication of thi
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Part 1 Tobacco: History
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Introduction Chapter 1 Evolution of
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RICHARD DOLL 5 However, little atte
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RICHARD DOLL 7 lung’ (Doll and Hi
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Table 1.1 Principal diseases caused
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Table 1.4 Manufactured cigarette co
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in 1995 was approaching the maximum
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References Adler, I. (1912). Primar
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Introduction Chapter 2 The great st
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MICHAEL J. THUN AND JANE HENLEY 19
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it seems likely that some of this v
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steady increase in lung cancer occu
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cigarette smoking in deaths from co
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the effects of smoking and smoking
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Lung cancer death rate (per 100,000
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Lickint, F. (1929). Zeitschrift fur
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Chapter 3 Dealing with health fears
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LYNN T. KOZLOWSKI AND RICHARD J. O
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Table 3.3 Selected cigarette advert
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Part 2 Tobacco: Composition
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Introduction Chapter 4 The changing
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ILSE HOFFMANN AND DIETRICH HOFFMANN
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Table 4.4 (continued) Carcinogens i
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Table 4.5 Standard conditions for m
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Table 4.7 Comparison of experimenta
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the lung in rats treated with NNK (
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serve as the scientific basis in su
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Senkus, M. (ed.) (1976). Leaf compo
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Introduction Chapter 5 Tobacco smok
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STEPHEN S. HECHT 95 Established pul
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STEPHEN S. HECHT 97 magnitude lower
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STEPHEN S. HECHT 99 generally great
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Table 5.1 1-Hydroxypyrene in the ur
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Table 5.2 NNAL and its glucuronides
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STEPHEN S. HECHT 105 Table 5.2 (con
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Table 5.3 Representative DNA adduct
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G No (Wang et al. 2001a) N 2 CHCH 2
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STEPHEN S. HECHT 111 N-Nitrosopyrro
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(Kozack et al. 2000; Seo et al. 200
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the DNA adducts resulting from toba
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Culp, S. J., Gaylor, D. W., Sheldon
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STEPHEN S. HECHT 119 International
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STEPHEN S. HECHT 121 Melchior, W. B
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STEPHEN S. HECHT 123 Rivenso, A., H
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Wang, M., McIntee, E. J., Cheng, G.
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Part 3 Nicotine and addiction
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Chapter 6 Pharmacology of nicotine
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JACK E. HENNINGFIELD AND NEAL L. BE
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Pickworth et al. 1995; Shiffman et
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American Caucasians and Hispanics (
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(US DHHS 2001). At doses delivered
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References JACK E. HENNINGFIELD AND
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Introduction Chapter 7 Behavioral p
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BRIDGETTE E. GARRETT ET AL. 151 How
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(Fischman and Foltin 1991). Another
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following repeated, infrequent and
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BRIDGETTE E. GARRETT ET AL. 157 oth
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BRIDGETTE E. GARRETT ET AL. 159 cli
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to tobacco product ingredients and
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BRIDGETTE E. GARRETT ET AL. 163 Gom
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BRIDGETTE E. GARRETT ET AL. 165 Ris
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Introduction Chapter 8 Cigarette sc
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JEFF FOWLES AND DENNIS SHUSTERMAN 1
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◆ The pressure drop of the filter
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Nitrosamines Nitrosamines are biolo
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Physical design features of cigaret
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Introduction Chapter 9 Nicotine dos
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world tobacco burden (World Health
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Table 9.2 The ranges of nicotine, n
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MIRJANA V. DJORDJEVIC 187 turing a
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Poland 19 1.4 n.a. n.a. 68−347 36
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MIRJANA V. DJORDJEVIC 191 cigarette
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MIRJANA V. DJORDJEVIC 193 Table 9.5
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MIRJANA V. DJORDJEVIC 195 MS wherea
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MIRJANA V. DJORDJEVIC 197 In recent
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MIRJANA V. DJORDJEVIC 199 Table 9.8
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MIRJANA V. DJORDJEVIC 201 Burns, D.
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International Agency for Research o
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Part 4 Tobacco use: Prevalence, tre
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Chapter 10 Tobacco in Great Britain
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Adult smoking PATTI WHITE 209 Since
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oys who were regular smokers report
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PATTI WHITE 213 cancer, and bringin
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Introduction Chapter 11 The epidemi
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since the late 1980s. In 2001, Phil
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YANG HONGHUAN 219 ◆ Among males,
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Table 11.1 Smoking among adolescent
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(57%) was higher than in males (45%
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20 cigarettes a day had double the
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Chapter 12 Patterns of smoking in R
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DAVID ZARIDZE 229 Ignatova et al. (
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DAVID ZARIDZE 231 Tyumen, respectiv
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References DAVID ZARIDZE 233 Alexee
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Chapter 13 Tobacco smoking in centr
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WITOLD ZATOŃSKI 237 The developmen
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especially post-Soviet countries, w
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No. of Cigarettes 3000 2500 2000 15
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WITOLD ZATOŃSKI 243 young men and
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DEATHS / 100,000 DEATHS / 100,000 7
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WITOLD ZATOŃSKI 247 According to d
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Unfortunately, available data on th
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Kaczmarczyk-Chalas, K., Gdulewicz,
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Chapter 14 The epidemic in India Pr
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aniseed, and musk, also available a
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PRAKASH C. GUPTA AND CECILY S. RAY
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Prevalence among youth PRAKASH C. G
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treatment and premature death were
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Although tobacco control legislatio
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PRAKASH C. GUPTA AND CECILY S. RAY
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Chapter 15 Tobacco in Africa: More
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In assessing tobacco use in Africa
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YUSSUF SALOOJEE 271 plug the gap th
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Table 15.2 Cigarette taxes as perce
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YUSSUF SALOOJEE 275 In recent years
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World Bank (2001). Economics of Tob
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Part 5 Tobacco and health. Global b
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Chapter 16 The future worldwide hea
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Page 318 and 319: UK male death rate at ages 35-69 ha
Page 320 and 321: Overview Chapter 17 Passive smoking
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Page 324 and 325: JONATHAN M. SAMET 291 a thousand de
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Page 332 and 333: JONATHAN M. SAMET 299 Fetal effects
Page 334 and 335: JONATHAN M. SAMET 301 Investigation
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Page 338 and 339: JONATHAN M. SAMET 305 also reported
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Page 344 and 345: JONATHAN M. SAMET 311 O’Connor, G
Page 346 and 347: JONATHAN M. SAMET 313 US Department
Page 348 and 349: Introduction Chapter 18 Adolescent
Page 350 and 351: JOHN P. PIERCE ET AL. 317 would be
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Page 356 and 357: subsequent consumption. Most studie
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Page 362 and 363: The epidemic Chapter 19 Tobacco and
Page 364 and 365: AMANDA AMOS AND JUDITH MACKAY 331 w
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Page 378 and 379: such as Jewel and Madonna, who woul
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Page 382 and 383: particularly in developing countrie
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Page 386 and 387: Part 6 Tobacco and cancer
Page 388 and 389: Chapter 20 Cancer of the prostate F
Page 390 and 391: Table 20.1 Summary of results of ca
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Page 398 and 399: FABIO LEVI AND CARLO LA VECCHIA 365
Page 400 and 401: Summary Chapter 21 Laryngeal cancer
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Page 404 and 405: Hedberg et al. USA, 235, 81% P, 547
Page 406 and 407: cigarettes as compared to blond-tob
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Chapter 22 Smoking and cancer of th
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Table 22.1 Results from selected ca
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Asia Gao et al. 1994— Population
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EVA NEGRI 389 Ille-et-Vilaine, Fran
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Odds Ratio 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0.30 2
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Garidou et al. 1996— Hospital ≤
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De Stefani, E., Barrios, E., and Fi
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Wynder, E. L. and Bross, I. J. (196
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Introduction Chapter 23 Tobacco use
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Table 23.1 Tobacco use and risk of
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Franceschi et al. Oral cavity, Oral
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Muscat et al. Oral cavity OR = 2.1
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Population-based case-control studi
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Lewin et al. Oral cavity, RR = 6.5
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TONGZHANG ZHENG ET AL. 411 the cont
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TONGZHANG ZHENG ET AL. 413 For smok
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TONGZHANG ZHENG ET AL. 415 per day
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TONGZHANG ZHENG ET AL. 417 than tha
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TONGZHANG ZHENG ET AL. 419 For exam
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TONGZHANG ZHENG ET AL. 421 decline
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Studies in India: Oral cancer is th
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carcinoma compared with other combi
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studies have demonstrated a positiv
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TONGZHANG ZHENG ET AL. 429 Garrote,
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TONGZHANG ZHENG ET AL. 431 Notani,
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Chapter 24 Smoking and stomach canc
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DAVID ZARIDZE 435 such as sex, age,
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DAVID ZARIDZE 437 (Kato et al. 1990
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DAVID ZARIDZE 439 respectively. The
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Gajalakshmi, C. K. and Shanta, V. (
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Pisani, P., Parkin, D. M., Bray, F.
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Introduction Chapter 25 Cigarette s
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attenuated in every study after con
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EDWARD GIOVANNUCCI 449 with a gener
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(Baron et al. 1994) of 352 colon ca
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(U.S. Dept. of Health Education and
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References EDWARD GIOVANNUCCI 455 A
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EDWARD GIOVANNUCCI 457 Kono, S., Ik
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Chapter 26 Smoking and cervical neo
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Tokuhata 1967* Williams 1977* Wigle
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Clarke 1985* Hellberg 1986* La Vecc
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ANNE SZAREWSKI AND JACK CUZICK 465
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case-control study nested in a scre
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five-fold risk of cervical cancer f
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(typically around two-fold), but be
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Introduction Chapter 27 Tobacco and
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Cigar, pipe, and chewing tobacco Wh
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Conclusion Overall, tobacco smoking
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Summary Chapter 28 Smoking and lung
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GRAHAM G. GILES AND PETER BOYLE 487
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quit for 20 years or more (Rogot an
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cancer and others where there is st
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Peto, R. (1986) Influence of dose a
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Chapter 29 Tobacco smoking and canc
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He further noted that case-control
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coefficients from the data in Table
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DIMITRIOS TRICHOPOULOS AND ARETI LA
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Epidemiology Chapter 30 Smoking and
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CRYSTAL N. HOLICK AND HARVEY A. RIS
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and at least the enteric variety of
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Chapter 31 Endometrial cancer Paul
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Table 31.1 Epidemiological studies
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studies (Terry et al. 1999, 2002a),
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Newcomer Population 740/2372 40-79
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PAUL D. TERRY ET AL. 531 levels, an
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Relative body weight Obesity is an
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Key et al. 1991 147 pre- and postme
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lood levels among current smokers,
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Table 31.7 Studies of cigarette smo
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of the association between cigarett
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Jensen, J., Christiansen, C., and R
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PAUL D. TERRY ET AL. 545 Weiderpass
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Part 7 Tobacco and heart disease
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citations of some of the best-known
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KONRAD JAMROZIK 553 because the dat
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KONRAD JAMROZIK 555 Fig. 32.2 Trend
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Table 32.3 Case-control studies of
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Table 32.5 Cohort studies of active
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Table 32.6 Effect of exclusion of p
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eadily addressed by cohort studies
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Specificity The entries in Table 32
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Table 32.8 Application of Bradford
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KONRAD JAMROZIK 569 arterial CVD re
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elationship goes beyond statistical
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Garland, C., Barrett-Connor, E., Su
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National Health and Medical Researc
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Part 8 Tobacco and respiratory dise
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Introduction Chapter 33 Chronic obs
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Many of the constituents in both th
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DAVID M. BURNS rate of growth in lu
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Death rates from COPD in smokers an
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Fraction of Excess Risk 1.20 1.00 0
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DAVID M. BURNS Higgins, M. W., Enri
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Part 9 Tobacco and other diseases
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Introduction Chapter 34 Smoking and
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ALLAN HACKSHAW 595 several mechanis
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Table 34.4 Studies that reported re
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Table 34.5 Cohort studies that repo
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than non-smokers; they have about h
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Table 34.8 Cohort studies that repo
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esults from cohort studies. There i
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ALLAN HACKSHAW 607 (DiFranza and Le
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Table 34.12 Cohort studies that rep
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Caries and tooth loss Because perio
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Table 34.16 Summary of disorders in
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References ALLAN HACKSHAW 615 Allar
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Johnsen, R., Forde, O. H., Straume,
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Seddon, J. M., Willett, W. C., Spei
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Part 10 Genetics, nicotine addictio
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Chapter 35 Genes, nicotine addictio
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Cotinine (ng/ml) 750 500 250 OXCHEC
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MICHAEL MURPHY ET AL. 627 of those
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MICHAEL MURPHY ET AL. risk associat
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Table 35.2 (continued) Gene map Chr
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MICHAEL MURPHY ET AL. pre-clinical
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Steps to carcinogenesis Exposure to
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DNA repair As previously alluded to
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MICHAEL MURPHY ET AL. Lichtenstein,
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Part 11 Tobacco and alcohol
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Table 36.1 Comparison of alcohol an
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Although gene therapy has rarely be
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20+ TABAC 5.1 10-19 0-9 3.4 12.3 0-
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Heavy drinking is known to cause ga
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Treatment issues and co-dependence
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ALBERT B. LOWENFELS AND PATRICK MAI
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Part 12 Tobacco control: Successes
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Introduction Chapter 37 Global toba
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NIGEL GRAY (sometimes at state leve
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NIGEL GRAY The first attempt to red
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per litre of smoke. Reduction of th
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Borland, R., Cappiello, M. and Owen
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Chapter 38 Lessons in tobacco contr
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entangling relationships with negot
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successful country advocates deeply
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Thus, when the opportunity arose, t
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Chapter 39 A brief history of legis
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Committee, mentioned above, little
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4. Tobacco and its related processi
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RUTH ROEMER 683 advertising and adv
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or shows, and distribution of free
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RUTH ROEMER 687 threat to the peopl
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RUTH ROEMER 689 The case was settle
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Another study by Harvard researcher
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At the end of 2003, 83 countries ha
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Chapter 40 Roles of tobacco litigat
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NGOs obtained sanctions against tob
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RICHARD A. DAYNARD 699 In a 1980s c
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RICHARD A. DAYNARD 701 Fourth, the
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even impossible. Such a statute pre
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RICHARD A. DAYNARD 705 Daynard, R.
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Introduction Chapter 41 Impact of s
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in this chapter, is evidence that s
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RON BORLAND AND CLAIRE DAVEY 711 Wh
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RON BORLAND AND CLAIRE DAVEY 713 On
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RON BORLAND AND CLAIRE DAVEY 715 ro
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you are subject, but this does not
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RON BORLAND AND CLAIRE DAVEY 719 to
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RON BORLAND AND CLAIRE DAVEY 721 fo
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RON BORLAND AND CLAIRE DAVEY 723 (E
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RON BORLAND AND CLAIRE DAVEY 725 th
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advanced. Although in countries lik
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RON BORLAND AND CLAIRE DAVEY 729 Da
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RON BORLAND AND CLAIRE DAVEY 731 Pr
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Introduction Chapter 42 Effective i
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PRABHAT JHA ET AL. 735 India (Gupta
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Average price or tax per pack (US$)
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PRABHAT JHA ET AL. 739 Bans on adve
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PRABHAT JHA ET AL. 741 Table 42.2 T
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PRABHAT JHA ET AL. 743 antismugglin
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Farrelly, M. C., Pechacek, T. F., a
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PRABHAT JHA ET AL. 747 Raw, M., Mc
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Part 13 Treatment of dependence
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Introduction Chapter 43 Treatment o
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Nocturnal sleep-disturbing nicotine
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MICHAEL KUNZE AND E. GROMAN 755 tob
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Fifteen different products were ide
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In summary, tobacco dependence amon
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medications for OTC sale in 1996, t
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MICHAEL KUNZE AND E. GROMAN 763 US
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Chapter 44 Regulation of the cigare
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as these correlate quite well with
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NIGEL GRAY 769 within three major g
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of carcinogens and toxins in its wa
Page 806 and 807:
Index abdominal aortic aneurysm see
Page 808 and 809:
aromatic amines 58, 60, 98 DNA addu
Page 810 and 811:
central and eastern Europe (CEE) (C
Page 812 and 813:
coronary thrombosis 5 see also myoc
Page 814 and 815:
epinephrine 169 epoxide hydrolase g
Page 816 and 817:
health professionals advice on smok
Page 818 and 819:
laryngeal cancer (Continued) animal
Page 820 and 821:
Morris, Philip 207 see also Philip
Page 822 and 823:
nursing home residents 718 nutritio
Page 824 and 825:
Polish Central Statistical Office (
Page 826 and 827:
smoke, tobacco (including cigarette
Page 828 and 829:
Sweden female smoking rates 330-1 l
Page 830 and 831:
United Nations agencies 680-1 Unite
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Tobacco and Public Health - TCSC Indonesia

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