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CONCLUSION 335i.e. with regard to the things with which we are already directly familiar, isthe essence of that thing. It is the essence in the sense that it is what eachthing is in virtue of itself and in virtue of its being the very thing it is. Butthe essence of each thing, <strong>Aristotle</strong> argued emphatically, is not somethingdifferent from and true of that thing and of things like it—so it is notsimply a universal. For suppose that the essence of each thing, i.e. of thethings with which we are already directly familiar, were simply a universal.This would mean that the things with which we are already directlyfamiliar, the so-called particulars, would be indeterminate in virtue ofthemselves and would depend on certain other things, the universals, fortheir determination. This is Plato’s view—but <strong>Aristotle</strong> wants to avoid it.For <strong>Aristotle</strong> wants to ensure that the things with which we are alreadydirectly familiar, the so-called particulars, are primary beings, i.e. they arebeings in virtue of themselves and not in virtue of their relation to otherthings.However, if we work within the parameters of <strong>Aristotle</strong>’s maincandidates for primary being—the particular, the universal, and the essence— Plato’s view is not easily avoided. This view says that the things withwhich we are already directly familiar, pre-philosophically and from ourordinary experience, are indeterminate in virtue of themselves and dependon the universals for their determination. Of course, if we find Plato’s viewattractive, still it does not immediately follow that we must conceive ofuniversals as Plato does, i.e. as distinct from changing particular things andas capable of existing even if not true of any changing particular things.Whether we must take these further steps is a further question.So the choice among <strong>Aristotle</strong>’s main candidates for primary being, andespecially between the essence and the particular on the one hand (whichis <strong>Aristotle</strong>’s choice), and the universals on the other hand (which is Plato’schoice), is a particularly difficult one. Perhaps this is just what <strong>Aristotle</strong>indicates when he says that the question, ‘What is primary being?’—likethe basic question, ‘What is being?’—‘is always a source of puzzlement’(VII. 1, 1028 b 2–4).
FURTHER READINGOn Chapter 1For general introductions to metaphysics in a broadly Aristotelian spirit, see Loux(1998) and Lowe (1998). For general books on the Metaphysics, see Owens(1951), Loux (1991) and Reeve (2000). For some general papers on theMetaphysics, see Cresswell (1971, 1975). For <strong>Aristotle</strong>’s essentialism, seeCohen (1977/1978). For recent works in metaphysics in a broadlyAristotelian spirit, see Kripke (1972), Armstrong (1978, 1997), and Fine(1994, 1995).On Chapter 2For <strong>Aristotle</strong>’s distinction between experience and explanatory knowledge, see Frede(1996). For a different interpretation of this distinction, see Bolton (1991).For <strong>Aristotle</strong>’s general conception of science, see Ruben (1990, chapters 2–3),Moravcsik (1991) and Hankinson (1995). For the relation of metaphysics tothe other sciences, see Wieland (1975) and, for a very different interpretation,see Bolton (1994,1996). For the theory of the four causes, see Bostock (1982).For <strong>Aristotle</strong>’s conception of matter, see Cohen (1984) and Fine (1992).On Chapter 3See translation and commentary by Madigan (1999). See Code (1980), Nussbaum(1982), Owen (1986), Halper (1988), Wians (1992), Cooper (1999) andPritzl (1999).On Chapter 4See translation and commentary by Kirwan (1993). For <strong>Aristotle</strong>’s generalconception of metaphysics, see Irwin (1977/1978), Frede (1987) and Barnes(1995). For the problem of conceiving of being as a whole, see Loux (1973).For the focal theory of being and the notion of primary being, see Hamlyn1977/1978), Ferejohn (1980), Irwin (1981), Owen (1986b), Morrison
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CONTENTSACKNOWLEDGEMENTS x1 <strong
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5 Is PNC Transcendental, i.e. is It
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ix9 The Ultimate Cause of Change, a
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1ARISTOTLE’S METAPHYSICS1What is
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ARISTOTLE’S METAPHYSICS 3apparent
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ARISTOTLE’S METAPHYSICS 5other an
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ARISTOTLE’S METAPHYSICS 7previous
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ARISTOTLE’S METAPHYSICS 9question
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ARISTOTLE’S METAPHYSICS 11distinc
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properties, i.e. into things and th
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ARISTOTLE’S METAPHYSICS 15thinkin
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ARISTOTLE’S METAPHYSICS 17Quine
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ARISTOTLE’S METAPHYSICS 19why thi
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ARISTOTLE’S METAPHYSICS 21right q
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2METAPHYSICS AS THE SCIENCE OFTHE U
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THE ULTIMATE EXPLANATIONS OF ALL TH
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ARISTOTLE’S METHOD IN METAPHYSICS
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68 ARISTOTLE’S METHOD IN METAPHYS
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4METAPHYSICS AS THE SCIENCE OFBEING
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92 BEING QUA BEING AND PRIMARY BEIN
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5THE DEFENCE OF THE PRINCIPLEOF NON
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124 THE DEFENCE OF PNCwill evidentl
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126 THE DEFENCE OF PNC2Aris
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128 THE DEFENCE OF PNCthat PNC must
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130 THE DEFENCE OF PNCsuppose that
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132 THE DEFENCE OF PNCcircular and
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134 THE DEFENCE OF PNCWe may note t
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136 THE DEFENCE OF PNCSomething cru
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140 THE DEFENCE OF PNCin this way d
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142 THE DEFENCE OF PNCdepends on so
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144 THE DEFENCE OF PNCsay nothing a
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146 THE DEFENCE OF PNCthing in one
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148 THE DEFENCE OF PNCPerhaps this
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150 THE DEFENCE OF PNCapparently, t
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152 THE DEFENCE OF PNCthere is a pr
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154 THE DEFENCE OF PNCview that all
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156 THE DEFENCE OF PNCFor example,
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158 PHENOMENALISM AND RELATIVISMkno
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7THE SEARCH FOR PRIMARY BEING(Book
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8THE ULTIMATE CAUSE OFCHANGE: GOD(B
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