Australian Politics and Policy - Senior, 2019a

Pressure groups and social movements
trying to influence public policy. This may include indirect methods through
networking or participating in government consultations, or more direct methods
such as electioneering or strategic professional links to government by being close
to government decision makers, either geographically or politically. 9 Contemporary
social movements tend to have many of the following characteristics:
• high levels of participation by individuals who don’t necessarily see themselves
as part of a formal organisation
• self-identification with the cause or issue of concern
• seeing political or ideological opponents as ‘enemies’ to overcome
• links with formal interest groups and ‘social movement organisations’ within
this wider tapestry of informal participation.
In practice, however, there is considerable overlap between social movements and
pressure groups. Often, what begin as social movements later spawn pressure groups.
Likewise, some groups that may form as pressure groups to address a policy issue
may focus their effort on broad-scale mobilisation and changing public opinion as
a way of bringing about the policy change they seek. For example, the campaign
for same-sex marriage in Australia began as a pressure group (stemming out of the
lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex rights movement, which sought legal
and policy change). As the quest for same-sex marriage gained traction in the broader
community,supportformarriageequalitybecameasocialmovement.
When do pressure groups and social movements form?
A number of theories explain formation. While these theories are explained
separately, in practice, many factors affect formation of pressure groups and social
movements.
Disturbance theory
David Truman observed the formation of pressure groups as a response to the
growing complexity of society. Any disturbances arising in the community upset
the balance within society. This in turn prompted pressure groups to form to
oppose these threats to the status quo. Truman also noted that in almost all
organised groups, an ‘active minority’ governed on behalf of the many. 10
Similarly, Smelser noticed that successful social movements morph from
‘disturbances into generalised beliefs’. Smelser argued that social movements evolve
in stages, but a society needs to be structured to enable collective behaviour, like
a democracy, for it to begin. Secondly, a deprivation, or perceived deprivation,
9 Davis et al. 1993, 139; Warhurst 1986a, 312.
10 Truman 1951, 139–55.
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