Australian Politics and Policy - Senior, 2019a

Pressure groups and social movements
suggests that participation, making a contribution and concern for quality of life are
the values which inspire pressure group formation, rather than the self-interested
interpretation of some rational choice scholars’ view of pressure groups. 76
Beer’s interpretation recognises that pressure groups arise from various
political environments. With this more ‘contextual’ perspective, each pressure
group can be examined and assessed in the context of its own history and situation.
In this view, collectives are motivated by the freedom of members of society to
choose, as part of a democratic and inclusive ‘provider’ society. Interest, or pressure,
groups are organised representations of citizens who facilitate democratic
participation. The motive to form a pressure group is egalitarian rather than selfish,
as groups lobby to address disadvantage.
Of course, motivations for pressure group participation overlap at times, as
those motivated by egalitarian aspirations and robust democracy realise they can
benefit from involvement in pressure groups, and can foster support from others
motivated by their own benefit. Few groups could be definitively categorised as
singularly motivated in a polity where different organisations and constituencies
represent a variety of interests. Either way, the representational role of groups is
critical for connecting the governed to their government. 77 Moreover, Putnam’s
characterisations of ‘bridging groups’ that interact with others, and ‘bonding groups’
thatprovidesolidarityforaminority,caneachbeseenasbothactorsingovernment
and society and precursors to more involved democratic participation. 78
What kinds of pressure groups and social movements are in Australia?
Within Australia, pressure group participation is much higher than membership of
political parties. 79 Pressure groups are often divided into two main camps:
• Sectional organisations represent traditional, recognised interests such as those
of the labour force, business or primary industries.
• Promotional groups advance interests other than these main sectors, such as
women’s interests or environmental issues. 80 However, their focus on particular
issues can result in representing narrower interests than those of other political
groups. 81
Both prefer different styles of action and different relationships with governments
or political parties. 82 Despite some complications, most pressure groups in
76 Beer 1982; Marsh 1995, 57–80.
77 Zappala and Sawer 2001, 273.
78 Putnam 2000.
79 Warhurst 2006, 327.
80 Matthews 1980, 448.
81 Warhurst 1986a, 313.
82 Warhurst 2006, 329.
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