Modern Engineering Thermodynamics

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13.2 Part I. Engines and Vapor Power Cycles 449 13.2.3 What Is an Engineer? In English, the –er ending to a word often means someone who does something. For example, someone who sings is a singer, someone who builds is a builder, and someone who writes is a writer. So, naturally, someone who creates ingenious things is called an engineer. That is where the name of our profession comes from. In French and German, the word engineer is translated as ingenieur, and in Italian, it is ingegnere. So, engineers are the people who create ingenious solutions to society’s problems. We are the engineers. 13.2.4 What Is a Heat Engine? The vast number of different engines (or machines) developed over time are usually classified either generally according to their source of power (animal, wind, water, etc.) or specifically according to their function. For example, beginning in the medieval period, an ingenious machine (an ingen or engine) was simply called a gin (a contraction applicable to either ingen or engine). 2 So when, in 1793, Eli Whitney (1765–1825) built an ingenious engine (or machine) for removing the seeds from raw cotton, his “cotton engine” became known as a cotton gin. A calculating engine is a machine whose function is to make calculations (e.g., an adding machine), whereas a pneumatic engine is an engine whose source of power is air pressure. A heat engine is any machine whose source of power is heat (fire, steam, solar, etc.), and whose specific function is undefined (i.e., it simply produces work, which can be mechanical, electrical, chemical, etc., in nature). Initially, heat engines simply produced mechanical work that was used directly (e.g., in manufacturing) or else they were connected to other engines. For example, they were often connected to pumping engines (pumps) to move water and later to electrical engines (generators) to generate electricity. Most heat engines use either a vapor or a gas as the internal energy transfer medium (even a thermoelectric device can be thought of as transporting energy via an internal electron gas). Typical heat engine characteristics are shown in Table 13.1. We call the device that actually produces the heat engine’s outputworktheprime mover. A prime mover can be a reciprocating piston-cylinder steam engine, a steam turbine, an internal combustion engine, and so forth. Figure 13.1 illustrates these terms. It is common to use the words engine and prime mover interchangeably when referring to reciprocating pistoncylinder devices. We follow this custom in this textbook when no confusion is likely to occur. The reason heat engines are so important to the study of thermodynamics is that the history of heat engine technology is essentially the history of the Industrial Revolution. The heat engine whose prime mover was the reciprocating piston steam engine was the first large-scale source of portable mechanical power. It was a source of power that did not depend on wind or river and could therefore be located anywhere. The heat engine is still the primary source of power for travel and electricity today, and it is likely to remain so for the foreseeable future. Table 13.1 Some Typical Heat Engine Characteristics Heat Sources Heat Sinks Working Fluid Work Output Prime Movers Cycle Types Uses Combustion Atmosphere Gas Engine Power Transportation Nuclear Oceans, lakes Vapor Turbine Refrigeration Generate electricity Atmosphere Rivers Vapor Reversed engine Heat pump Heating and cooling Ocean Groundwater Vapor Solid state (e.g., thermoelectric) Power Generate electricity W out Heat source Q H Prime mover Q L Heat sink Heat engine FIGURE 13.1 Heat engine terminology. 2 The alcoholic beverage gin (a spirit distilled from grain and originally flavored with the juice of juniper berries) is a contraction of the word geneva, which comes from the Latin juniperus.
450 CHAPTER 13: Vapor and Gas Power Cycles THE EVOLUTION OF STEAM POWER Heat engine steam power technology began in 1698, when Thomas Savery (1650–1715) was granted a patent by King William III of England for “an engine for raising water by the impellant force of fire.” Savery’s machine was designed to pump water from flooded English mines, and he called it a fire engine because it drew its power from the fire under the boiler rather than from horses or wind. Its only moving mechanical parts were hand operated valves and automatic check valves. It drew water by suction when a partial vacuum was created as steam condensed inside a pumping chamber. The operation of this engine is shown in Figure 13.2. Savery’s engine could not draw water from a depth of more than about 20 ft (6.1 m), and it was somewhat dangerous because of the relatively high boiler pressure required to push the water out through the discharge pipe. Boiler technology had not advanced beyond that of the brewing industry then in existence, and many boiler explosions are known to have occurred. Nonetheless, Savery’s engine was an enormous economic success. It used fire to pump water, which was something that no other engine could do, and it was the first technologically successful heat engine. In spite of its large size and rather primitive use of steam, its simplicity made it a popular means of pumping water through short distances. Engines of this design were in continuous use in England until 1830. Discharge pipe Spray water valve Spray water to condense the steam in the pumping chamber Steam valve Boiler Pumping chamber Pumping chamber exit valve Suction pipe Pumping chamber inlet valve Fire Sieve Mine flood water FIGURE 13.2 A schematic of the operation of Savery’s fire engine. Steam was generated in the boiler at 100–150 psig. To operate the engine, the manual control valve was opened to fill the pumping chamber with steam. This valve was then closed and cold water was allowed to flow over the outside of the pumping chamber, causing the steam inside to condense and form a partial vacuum. Atmospheric pressure (acting on the surface of the mine water) then forced the water from the flooded mine up through the suction pipe and into the pumping chamber.
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Modern Engineering Thermodynamics
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Modern Engineering Thermodynamics R
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Dedication WHAT IS AN ENGINEER AND
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Contents PREFACE . . . . . . . . .
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Contents ix 7.6 Heat Engines Runnin
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Contents xi 14.13 Air Standard Gas
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Preface TEXT OBJECTIVES This textbo
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Preface xv Step 5. Write down the b
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Acknowledgments I wish to acknowled
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Resources That Accompany This Book
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List of Symbols A a B COP CR c c p
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Prologue PARIS FRANCE, 10:35 AM, AU
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CHAPTER 1 The Beginning CONTENTS 1.
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1.2 Why Is Thermodynamics Important
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1.3 Getting Answers: A Basic Proble
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1.5 How Do We Measure Things? 7 bei
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1.6 Temperature Units 9 THE DEVELOP
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1.7 Classical Mechanical and Electr
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1.7 Classical Mechanical and Electr
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1.9 Modern Units Systems 15 where M
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1.10 Significant Figures 17 CRITICA
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1.10 Significant Figures 19 WHAT AB
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1.11 Potential and Kinetic Energies
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1.11 Potential and Kinetic Energies
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Summary 25 FIGURE 1.19 Case study 1
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Problems 27 Problems (* indicates p
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Problems 29 14. Determine the mass
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Problems 31 49. Using the CGS units
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CHAPTER 2 Thermodynamic Concepts CO
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2.3 Phases of Matter 35 System boun
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2.4 System States and Thermodynamic
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2.6 Thermodynamic Processes 39 WHAT
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2.7 Pressure and Temperature Scales
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2.9 The Continuum Hypothesis 43 Sur
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2.10 The Balance Concept 45 Solutio
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2.11 The Conservation Concept 47 or
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2.11 The Conservation Concept 49 Th
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Summary 51 change in the mass of X
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Problems 53 Problems (* indicates p
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Problems 55 and Death rate = α 2 +
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CHAPTER 3 Thermodynamic Properties
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3.3 Fun with Mathematics 59 CRITICA
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3.4 Some Exciting New Thermodynamic
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3.6 Enthalpy 63 WHO WAS AMALIE EMMY
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3.7 Phase Diagrams 65 WHO WAS EMMY
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Pressure Vapor 3.7 Phase Diagrams 6
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3.7 Phase Diagrams 69 WHAT IS A “
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3.7 Phase Diagrams 71 considerable
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3.8 Quality 73 10 5 300 C Critical
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3.8 Quality 75 Although Eq. (3.26)
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3.9 Thermodynamic Equations of Stat
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3.10 Thermodynamic Tables 85 Critic
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3.12 Thermodynamic Charts 87 vð100
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3.13 Thermodynamic Property Softwar
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Summary 91 and e = E/m = u + V2 2g
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Problems 93 c. For a saturated mixt
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Problems 95 specific enthalpy of sa
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Problems 97 Table 3.23 Problem 65 M
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CHAPTER 4 The First Law of Thermody
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4.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics
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4.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics
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4.4 Energy Transport Mechanisms 105
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4.5 Point and Path Functions 107 4.
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4.6 Mechanical Work Modes of Energy
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4.7 Nonmechanical Work Modes of Ene
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4.9 Work Efficiency 125 In the case
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4.12 Heat Modes of Energy Transport
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4.13 Heat Transfer Modes 129 Table
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4.14 A Thermodynamic Problem Solvin
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4.14 A Thermodynamic Problem Solvin
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4.15 How to Write a Thermodynamics
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4.15 How to Write a Thermodynamics
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Summary 139 The general open system
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Problems 141 11.* Determine the hea
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Problems 143 where K = 0.810 lbf. D
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Problems 145 Table 4.12 Problem 67
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CHAPTER 5 First Law Closed System A
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5.2 Sealed, Rigid Containers 149 In
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5.4 Power Plants 151 Step 7. Calcul
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5.5 Incompressible Liquids 153 The
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1Q 2 − 1 W 2 = mðu 2 − u 1 Þ
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5.8 Closed System Unsteady State Pr
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5.9 The Explosive Energy of Pressur
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Problems 161 Problems (* indicates
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Problems 163 31. A thermoelectric g
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Problems 165 where v, T, and r are
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CHAPTER 6 First Law Open System App
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6.2 Mass Flow Energy Transport 169
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6.3 Conservation of Energy and Cons
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6.4 Flow Stream Specific Kinetic an
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6.5 Nozzles and Diffusers 175 m (a)
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6.5 Nozzles and Diffusers 177 We ar
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6.6 Throttling Devices 179 These as
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6.6 Throttling Devices 181 For an i
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6.7 Throttling Calorimeter 183 The
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6.8 Heat Exchangers 185 Convective
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6.9 Shaft Work Machines 187 6.9 SHA
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6.9 Shaft Work Machines 189 1 Basem
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6.10 Open System Unsteady State Pro
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Problems 197 we have _m R / _m D =
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Problems 201 32.* A commercial slid
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Summary 203 59. Incompressible liqu
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CHAPTER 7 Second Law of Thermodynam
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7.3 The Second Law of Thermodynamic
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7.4 Carnot’s Heat Engine and the
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7.4 Carnot’s Heat Engine and the
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7.5 The Absolute Temperature Scale
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7.5 The Absolute Temperature Scale
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7.6 Heat Engines Running Backward 2
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7.7 Clausius’s Definition of Entr
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7.8 Numerical Values for Entropy 22
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7.10 Differential Entropy Balance 2
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7.11 Heat Transport of Entropy 229
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7.13 Entropy Production Mechanisms
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7.14 Heat Transfer Production of En
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7.15 Work Mode Production of Entrop
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7.15 Work Mode Production of Entrop
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7.16 Phase Change Entropy Productio
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Summary 241 ■ Indirect method inv
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Problems 243 amount of work W irr i
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Problems 245 a. If the heat pump is
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Problems 247 51. Develop a program
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CHAPTER 8 Second Law Closed System
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8.2 Systems Undergoing Reversible P
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8.3 Systems Undergoing Irreversible
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8.4 Diffusional Mixing 271 Exercise
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Summary 273 Note that this example
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Problems 275 15. A 20.0 ft 3 tank c
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Problems 277 46. a. Determine a for
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CHAPTER 9 Second Law Open System Ap
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9.4 Open System Entropy Balance Equ
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9.4 Open System Entropy Balance Equ
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9.5 Nozzles, Diffusers, and Throttl
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9.5 Nozzles, Diffusers, and Throttl
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9.6 Heat Exchangers 289 Exercises 1
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9.6 Heat Exchangers 291 (T H ) (T H
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9.7 Mixing 293 Now, _m air is given
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9.7 Mixing 295 Critical value of y,
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9.9 Unsteady State Processes in Ope
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Problems 309 Multiplying this equat
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Problems 311 entropy production rat
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Problems 313 heat is added to the b
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Problems 315 55.* Determine the max
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Problems 317 The cavitation process
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CHAPTER 10 Availability Analysis CO
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10.3 What Are Conservative Forces?
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10.6 Availability 323 WHAT IS A SYS
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10.6 Availability 325 and the total
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10.7 Closed System Availability Bal
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10.7 Closed System Availability Bal
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10.8 Flow Availability 331 EXAMPLE
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s − s 0 = c ln T T 0 10.8 Flow Av
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10.10 Modified Availability Rate Ba
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10.10 Modified Availability Rate Ba
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10.11 Energy Efficiency Based on th
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Summary 351 In this problem, we hav
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Summary 353 7. The general open sys
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Problems 355 12.5 Btu/hr·ft ·R. I
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Problems 357 flow rate of 15.0 lbm/
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Problems 359 85. Create a specific
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CHAPTER 11 More Thermodynamic Relat
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11.2 Two New Properties: Helmholtz
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11.2 Two New Properties: Helmholtz
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11.4 Maxwell Equations 367 11.4 MAX
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11.4 Maxwell Equations 369 then,
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11.5 The Clapeyron Equation 371 and
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11.6 Determining u, h, and s from p
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11.7 Constructing Tables and Charts
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11.8 Thermodynamic Charts 381 so th
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11.9 Gas Tables 383 where p r is th
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11.10 Compressibility Factor and Ge
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11.11 Is Steam Ever an Ideal Gas? 3
Page 424 and 425: Summary 399 equation, and a series
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Page 430 and 431: CHAPTER 12 Mixtures of Gases and Va
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Page 442 and 443: 12.4 Psychrometrics 417 Finally, th
Page 444 and 445: 12.4 Psychrometrics 419 EXAMPLE 12.
Page 446 and 447: 12.6 The Sling Psychrometer 421 The
Page 448 and 449: 12.6 The Sling Psychrometer 423 p w
Page 450 and 451: 12.7 Air Conditioning 425 WHAT ENVI
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Page 456 and 457: 12.9 Mixtures of Real Gases 431 Whe
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Page 464 and 465: Summary 439 Last, we combine Dalton
Page 466 and 467: Problems 441 Problems (* indicates
Page 468 and 469: Problems 443 exhaust gas is an idea
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Page 472 and 473: CHAPTER 13 Vapor and Gas Power Cycl
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Page 488 and 489: 13.5 Operating Efficiencies 463 b.
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Page 492 and 493: 13.6 Rankine Cycle with Superheat 4
Page 494 and 495: 13.7 Rankine Cycle with Regeneratio
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Page 502 and 503: 13.9 Rankine Cycle with Reheat 477
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Page 506 and 507: 13.10 Modern Steam Power Plants 481
Page 512 and 513: 13.12 Air Standard Power Cycles 487
Page 514 and 515: 13.13 Stirling Cycle 489 Q H 4 1 4
Page 516 and 517: 13.14 Ericsson Cycle 491 Q H 4 1 3
Page 518 and 519: 13.15 Lenoir Cycle 493 Exercises 28
Page 520 and 521: 13.16 Brayton Cycle 495 Solution Us
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13.17 Aircraft Gas Turbine Engines
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13.17 Aircraft Gas Turbine Engines
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13.18 Otto Cycle 503 T Q H 1 1 1 v
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13.18 Otto Cycle 505 Exercises 40.
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13.18 Otto Cycle 507 and, since the
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13.20 Miller Cycle 509 13.19.1 Mode
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13.20 Miller Cycle 511 Then, from F
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13.21 Diesel Cycle 513 to stroll on
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13.21 Diesel Cycle 515 Solution a.
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13.22 Modern Prime Mover Developmen
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13.23 Second Law Analysis of Vapor
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Summary 525 Fill port 160 mm End of
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Problems 527 7. The thermal efficie
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efficiency increase if the condense
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Problems 531 horsepower hour. Assum
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Problems 533 72. Determine the valu
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CHAPTER 14 Vapor and Gas Refrigerat
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14.3 Carnot Refrigeration Cycle 537
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14.4 In the Beginning There Was Ice
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14.4 In the Beginning There Was Ice
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14.5 Vapor-Compression Refrigeratio
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14.5 Vapor-Compression Refrigeratio
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14.6 Refrigerants 547 T 3 2s 2 p 3
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14.7 Refrigerant Numbers 549 14.7 R
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14.7 Refrigerant Numbers 551 R-110
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14.8 CFCs and the Ozone Layer 553 H
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14.9 Cascade and Multistage Vapor-C
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14.10 Absorption Refrigeration 561
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14.11 Commercial and Household Refr
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14.14 Reversed Brayton Cycle Refrig
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14.14 Reversed Brayton Cycle Refrig
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14.15 Reversed Stirling Cycle Refri
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14.16 Miscellaneous Refrigeration T
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14.16 Miscellaneous Refrigeration T
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14.18 Second Law Analysis of Refrig
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14.18 Second Law Analysis of Refrig
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2. The coefficient of performance o
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Problems 585 13.* A refrigeration u
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Problems 587 Loop B Station 1B Stat
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Problems 589 under these conditions
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CHAPTER 15 Chemical Thermodynamics
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15.2 Stoichiometric Equations 593 1
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15.2 Stoichiometric Equations 595 C
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15.3 Organic Fuels 597 ANSWERS SOME
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15.4 Fuel Modeling 599 Hydrocarbon
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15.4 Fuel Modeling 601 equation, si
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15.5 Standard Reference State 603 I
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15.6 Heat of Formation 605 and H 2
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15.7 Heat of Reaction 607 EXAMPLE 1
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15.7 Heat of Reaction 609 CRITICAL
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15.7 Heat of Reaction 611 Then, h P
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15.8 Adiabatic Flame Temperature 61
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15.9 Maximum Explosion Pressure 619
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15.10 Entropy Production in Chemica
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15.10 Entropy Production in Chemica
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15.11 Entropy of Formation and Gibb
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15.12 Chemical Equilibrium and Diss
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H 2 O !ð1 − yÞH 2 O + yðv H2
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15.14 The van’t Hoff Equation 635
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15.15 Fuel Cells 637 Anode Electrol
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15.15 Fuel Cells 639 The maximum po
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15.16 Chemical Availability 641 and
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ðn i /n fuel Þðc pi Þ E system
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Problems 645 where j = 4n + m kgmol
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Problems 647 c. The percent excess
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Problems 649 77. Determine the mola
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CHAPTER 16 Compressible Fluid Flow
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16.3 Isentropic Stagnation Properti
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16.4 The Mach Number 655 Note that
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16.4 The Mach Number 657 Table 16.1
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16.4 The Mach Number 659 Since for
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16.5 Converging-Diverging Flows 661
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16.5 Converging-Diverging Flows 663
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16.6 Choked Flow 665 T a a p a = co
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16.6 Choked Flow 667 Exercises 16.
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16.7 Reynolds Transport Theorem 669
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16.7 Reynolds Transport Theorem 671
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16.8 Linear Momentum Rate Balance 6
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16.9 Shock Waves 675 16.9 SHOCK WAV
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16.9 Shock Waves 677 and, for an id
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16.9 Shock Waves 679 6 5 4 S P /(m
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16.10 Nozzle and Diffuser Efficienc
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16.10 Nozzle and Diffuser Efficienc
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Summary 685 Since for a diffuser, M
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43. 0.800 lbm/s of air passes throu
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Problems 691 A plot of this functio
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CHAPTER 17 Thermodynamics of Biolog
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17.3 Thermodynamics of Biological C
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17.3 Thermodynamics of Biological C
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17.4 Energy Conversion Efficiency o
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17.4 Energy Conversion Efficiency o
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17.5 Metabolism 703 Table 17.3 Brea
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17.6 Thermodynamics of Nutrition an
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17.7 Limits to Biological Growth 71
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17.7 Limits to Biological Growth 71
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17.8 Locomotion Transport Number 71
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17.9 Thermodynamics of Aging and De
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17.9 Thermodynamics of Aging and De
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1/3 V most efficient = P o ρAC D S
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Problems 723 a. If the monster cons
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Problems 725 the officer asks Paul
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CHAPTER 18 Introduction to Statisti
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18.3 Kinetic Theory of Gases 729 3.
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U trans = 3 2 NkT (Continued ) 18.3
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18.4 Intermolecular Collisions 733
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18.5 Molecular Velocity Distributio
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18.5 Molecular Velocity Distributio
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18.6 Equipartition of Energy 739 We
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18.7 Introduction to Mathematical P
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18.8 Quantum Statistical Thermodyna
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18.9 Three Classical Quantum Statis
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18.11 Monatomic Maxwell-Boltzmann G
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18.12 Diatomic Maxwell-Boltzmann Ga
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18.12 Diatomic Maxwell-Boltzmann Ga
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18.13 Polyatomic Maxwell-Boltzmann
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Summary 759 In this chapter, we sum
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Problems 761 4. Find the temperatur
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CHAPTER 19 Introduction to Coupled
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19.3 Linear Phenomenological Equati
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19.4 Thermoelectric Coupling 767 Eq
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19.4 Thermoelectric Coupling 769 Th
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19.4 Thermoelectric Coupling 771 wh
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19.4 Thermoelectric Coupling 773 Th
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19.4 Thermoelectric Coupling 775 b.
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19.5 Thermomechanical Coupling 777
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water), it seems reasonable that li
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Problems 785 b. For a Knudson gas,
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Appendix A: Physical Constants and
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Appendix B: Greek and Latin Origins
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Appendix B 791 Table B.4 Plural End
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Index Page numbers followed by f in
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Index 795 E e (specific energy), 10
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Index 797 Isobaric coefficient of v
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Index 799 Ranque, Georges Joseph, 3
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Index 801 William III, King of Engl
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Modern Engineering Thermodynamics

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