Modern Engineering Thermodynamics

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13.5 Operating Efficiencies 465 Station 3—Condenser exit p 3 = p 2s = 14:7 psia Station 4s—Boiler inlet p 4s = p 1 = 100 psia x 3 = 0 s 4s = s 3 h 3 = h f ð14:7 psiaÞ = 180:1 Btu/lbm v 3 = v f ð14:7 psiaÞ = 0:01672 ft 3 /lbm Then, the isentropic efficiency of this system is given by Eq. (13.9b) as ðη T Þ maximum Rankine = h 1 − h 2s − v 3 ðp 4 − p 3 Þ h 1 − h 3 − v 3 ðp 4 − p 3 Þ ð1187:8 − 1047:5 Btu/lbmÞ− 0:01672 ft 3 /lbm 100: − 14:7 lbf/in 2 144 in 2 /ft 2 118:16 ft . lbf/Btu = ð1187:8 − 180:1 Btu/lbmÞ− 0:01672 ft 3 /lbm 100: − 14:7 lbf/in 2 144 in 2 /ft 2 118:16 ft . lbf/Btu = 0:139 = 13:9% T 1 h 4s 1 3,4s 2s 3 2s s s FIGURE 13.13 Example 13.4, T–s diagram. b. Here, we use Eq. (13.9a) with (η s ) pm = 0.550. and (η s ) p = 0.650. ð ðη T Þ Rankine = h 1 − h 2s Þðη s Þ pm − v 3 ðp 4 − p 3 Þ/ ðη s Þ p h 1 − h 3 − v 3 ðp 4 − p 3 Þ/ ðη s Þ p ð1187:8 − 1047:5 Btu/lbmÞð0:550Þ− 0:01672 ft 3 /lbm 100: − 14:7 lbf/in 2 144 in 2 /ft 2 1 118:16 ft . lbf/Btu 0:650 = ð1187:8 − 180:1 Btu/lbmÞ− 0:01672 ft 3 /lbm 100: − 14:7 lbf/in 2 144 in 2 /ft 2 1 118:16 ft . lbf/Btu 0:650 = 0:0762 = 7:62% c. If the actual power output from the engine is 1400 hp and the isentropic efficiency of the engine is 55%, then the mass flow rate of steam required is _m = _W actual ð1400: hpÞð2545 Btu/hp . hÞ = = 46,200 lbm/h ðh 1 − h 2s Þðη s Þ pm ð1187:8 − 1047:5 Btu/lbmÞð0:550Þ Exercises 10. Determine the mass flow rate of steam required for the Corliss engine in Example 13.4 if it produced only 1000. hp instead of 1400. hp. Assume all the other variables remain unchanged. Answer: _m = 33,000 lbm/h. 11. If the isentropic efficiency of the Corliss engine in Example 13.4 were increased from 55.0% to 75.0%, determine the mass flow rate then required to produce 1400. hp. Assume all the other variables remain unchanged. Answer: _m = 33,860 lbm/h. 12. If the condenser pressure in Example 13.4 were reduced from 14.7 psia to 1.00 psia, recalculate items a, b, and c in Example 13.4. Assume all the other variables remain unchanged. Answer: a.(η T ) max Rankine = 26.1%, b. (η T ) Rankine = 14.3%, and c. _m = 22,3000 lbm/h.
466 CHAPTER 13: Vapor and Gas Power Cycles 50 Reciprocating engines Turbines Thermal efficiency (%) 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 Atmospheric (condensing) engines Savery and Newcomen engines The effect of Watt’s innovations High−pressure (expansion) engines Isentropic Rankine cycle efficiency limit Actual thermal efficiency range 10 5 0 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 Year FIGURE 13.14 A chronology of steam engine thermal efficiency, 1700–2000. The actual thermal efficiencies achieved by these early engines were naturally considerably less than that predicted through an isentropic analysis. Figure 13.14 illustrates the growth of both the actual and the isentropic efficiencies for the past three centuries. Since the early steam engines were very large and expensive, the firm of Boulton and Watt devised a creative marketing scheme based on the superior thermal efficiency of their engine. They let the purchaser pay for his engine by giving the company one third of the value of the fuel saved with the new engine as compared with the fuel consumption of a standard Newcomen engine of thesamesize. 13.6 RANKINE CYCLE WITH SUPERHEAT Between 1850 and 1890, a variety of mechanical complexities were added to the reciprocating steam engine to improve its thermal efficiency. For example, the cylinders were often staged in series, so that the steam was first expanded in a high-pressure cylinder then exhausted to lower-pressure cylinder stages. Series staging of an engine’s cylinders with the steam expanding only partially in each stage was then called compounding. Twostage (duplex) expansion was introduced in 1811, three-stage (triplex) in 1871, and four-stage (quadruplex) in 1875. By 1880, it was recognized that initially dry saturated steam became wet when condensation occurred during the expansion stroke of the piston (process 1 to 2 in Figure 13.8b). The water droplets thus formed inside the cylinder tended to cool it slightly, and they promoted corrosion. This meant that the cylinder walls were being alternately cooled and heated (as in the original Newcomen engine) slightly with each cycle of the engine, and this reduced the engine’s thermal efficiency. However, if the steam entered the cylinder in a superheated state, then the amount of moisture produced during the expansion stroke was greatly reduced or eliminated altogether. Originally, the term surcharging was used to denote the use of superheated steam. This term has since been replaced by the more direct term superheating. Superheating the steam at the entrance to the cylinder alters the equivalent Carnot cycle by raising T H to the superheating temperature and consequently increases the equivalent Carnot efficiency considerably. This, in turn, makes the Rankine cycle appear less desirable by comparison, as shown in Figure 13.15. But all vapor cycle heat engines operate on the Rankine cycle, and using the Carnot cycle for engineering comparison purposes is purely academic. A more realistic comparison would be between the isentropic Rankine cycle and the actual Rankine cycle.
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Modern Engineering Thermodynamics
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Modern Engineering Thermodynamics R
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Dedication WHAT IS AN ENGINEER AND
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Contents PREFACE . . . . . . . . .
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Contents ix 7.6 Heat Engines Runnin
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Contents xi 14.13 Air Standard Gas
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Preface TEXT OBJECTIVES This textbo
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Preface xv Step 5. Write down the b
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Acknowledgments I wish to acknowled
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Resources That Accompany This Book
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List of Symbols A a B COP CR c c p
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Prologue PARIS FRANCE, 10:35 AM, AU
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CHAPTER 1 The Beginning CONTENTS 1.
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1.2 Why Is Thermodynamics Important
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1.3 Getting Answers: A Basic Proble
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1.5 How Do We Measure Things? 7 bei
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1.6 Temperature Units 9 THE DEVELOP
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1.7 Classical Mechanical and Electr
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1.7 Classical Mechanical and Electr
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1.9 Modern Units Systems 15 where M
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1.10 Significant Figures 17 CRITICA
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1.10 Significant Figures 19 WHAT AB
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1.11 Potential and Kinetic Energies
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1.11 Potential and Kinetic Energies
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Summary 25 FIGURE 1.19 Case study 1
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Problems 27 Problems (* indicates p
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Problems 29 14. Determine the mass
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Problems 31 49. Using the CGS units
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CHAPTER 2 Thermodynamic Concepts CO
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2.3 Phases of Matter 35 System boun
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2.4 System States and Thermodynamic
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2.6 Thermodynamic Processes 39 WHAT
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2.7 Pressure and Temperature Scales
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2.9 The Continuum Hypothesis 43 Sur
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2.10 The Balance Concept 45 Solutio
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2.11 The Conservation Concept 47 or
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2.11 The Conservation Concept 49 Th
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Summary 51 change in the mass of X
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Problems 53 Problems (* indicates p
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Problems 55 and Death rate = α 2 +
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CHAPTER 3 Thermodynamic Properties
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3.3 Fun with Mathematics 59 CRITICA
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3.4 Some Exciting New Thermodynamic
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3.6 Enthalpy 63 WHO WAS AMALIE EMMY
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3.7 Phase Diagrams 65 WHO WAS EMMY
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Pressure Vapor 3.7 Phase Diagrams 6
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3.7 Phase Diagrams 69 WHAT IS A “
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3.7 Phase Diagrams 71 considerable
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3.8 Quality 73 10 5 300 C Critical
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3.8 Quality 75 Although Eq. (3.26)
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3.9 Thermodynamic Equations of Stat
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3.10 Thermodynamic Tables 85 Critic
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3.12 Thermodynamic Charts 87 vð100
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3.13 Thermodynamic Property Softwar
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Summary 91 and e = E/m = u + V2 2g
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Problems 93 c. For a saturated mixt
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Problems 95 specific enthalpy of sa
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Problems 97 Table 3.23 Problem 65 M
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CHAPTER 4 The First Law of Thermody
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4.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics
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4.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics
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4.4 Energy Transport Mechanisms 105
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4.5 Point and Path Functions 107 4.
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4.6 Mechanical Work Modes of Energy
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4.7 Nonmechanical Work Modes of Ene
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4.9 Work Efficiency 125 In the case
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4.12 Heat Modes of Energy Transport
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4.13 Heat Transfer Modes 129 Table
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4.14 A Thermodynamic Problem Solvin
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4.14 A Thermodynamic Problem Solvin
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4.15 How to Write a Thermodynamics
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4.15 How to Write a Thermodynamics
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Summary 139 The general open system
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Problems 141 11.* Determine the hea
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Problems 143 where K = 0.810 lbf. D
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Problems 145 Table 4.12 Problem 67
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CHAPTER 5 First Law Closed System A
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5.2 Sealed, Rigid Containers 149 In
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5.4 Power Plants 151 Step 7. Calcul
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5.5 Incompressible Liquids 153 The
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1Q 2 − 1 W 2 = mðu 2 − u 1 Þ
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5.8 Closed System Unsteady State Pr
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5.9 The Explosive Energy of Pressur
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Problems 161 Problems (* indicates
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Problems 163 31. A thermoelectric g
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Problems 165 where v, T, and r are
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CHAPTER 6 First Law Open System App
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6.2 Mass Flow Energy Transport 169
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6.3 Conservation of Energy and Cons
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6.4 Flow Stream Specific Kinetic an
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6.5 Nozzles and Diffusers 175 m (a)
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6.5 Nozzles and Diffusers 177 We ar
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6.6 Throttling Devices 179 These as
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6.6 Throttling Devices 181 For an i
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6.7 Throttling Calorimeter 183 The
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6.8 Heat Exchangers 185 Convective
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6.9 Shaft Work Machines 187 6.9 SHA
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6.9 Shaft Work Machines 189 1 Basem
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6.10 Open System Unsteady State Pro
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Problems 197 we have _m R / _m D =
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Problems 201 32.* A commercial slid
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Summary 203 59. Incompressible liqu
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CHAPTER 7 Second Law of Thermodynam
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7.3 The Second Law of Thermodynamic
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7.4 Carnot’s Heat Engine and the
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7.4 Carnot’s Heat Engine and the
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7.5 The Absolute Temperature Scale
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7.5 The Absolute Temperature Scale
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7.6 Heat Engines Running Backward 2
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7.7 Clausius’s Definition of Entr
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7.8 Numerical Values for Entropy 22
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7.10 Differential Entropy Balance 2
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7.11 Heat Transport of Entropy 229
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7.13 Entropy Production Mechanisms
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7.14 Heat Transfer Production of En
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7.15 Work Mode Production of Entrop
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7.15 Work Mode Production of Entrop
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7.16 Phase Change Entropy Productio
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Summary 241 ■ Indirect method inv
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Problems 243 amount of work W irr i
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Problems 245 a. If the heat pump is
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Problems 247 51. Develop a program
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CHAPTER 8 Second Law Closed System
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8.2 Systems Undergoing Reversible P
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8.3 Systems Undergoing Irreversible
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8.4 Diffusional Mixing 271 Exercise
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Summary 273 Note that this example
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Problems 275 15. A 20.0 ft 3 tank c
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Problems 277 46. a. Determine a for
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CHAPTER 9 Second Law Open System Ap
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9.4 Open System Entropy Balance Equ
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9.4 Open System Entropy Balance Equ
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9.5 Nozzles, Diffusers, and Throttl
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9.5 Nozzles, Diffusers, and Throttl
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9.6 Heat Exchangers 289 Exercises 1
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9.6 Heat Exchangers 291 (T H ) (T H
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9.7 Mixing 293 Now, _m air is given
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9.7 Mixing 295 Critical value of y,
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9.9 Unsteady State Processes in Ope
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Problems 309 Multiplying this equat
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Problems 311 entropy production rat
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Problems 313 heat is added to the b
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Problems 315 55.* Determine the max
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Problems 317 The cavitation process
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CHAPTER 10 Availability Analysis CO
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10.3 What Are Conservative Forces?
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10.6 Availability 323 WHAT IS A SYS
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10.6 Availability 325 and the total
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10.7 Closed System Availability Bal
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10.7 Closed System Availability Bal
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10.8 Flow Availability 331 EXAMPLE
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s − s 0 = c ln T T 0 10.8 Flow Av
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10.10 Modified Availability Rate Ba
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10.10 Modified Availability Rate Ba
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10.11 Energy Efficiency Based on th
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Summary 351 In this problem, we hav
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Summary 353 7. The general open sys
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Problems 355 12.5 Btu/hr·ft ·R. I
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Problems 357 flow rate of 15.0 lbm/
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Problems 359 85. Create a specific
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CHAPTER 11 More Thermodynamic Relat
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11.2 Two New Properties: Helmholtz
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11.2 Two New Properties: Helmholtz
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11.4 Maxwell Equations 367 11.4 MAX
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11.4 Maxwell Equations 369 then,
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11.5 The Clapeyron Equation 371 and
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11.6 Determining u, h, and s from p
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11.7 Constructing Tables and Charts
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11.8 Thermodynamic Charts 381 so th
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11.9 Gas Tables 383 where p r is th
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11.10 Compressibility Factor and Ge
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11.11 Is Steam Ever an Ideal Gas? 3
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Summary 399 equation, and a series
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Problems 401 20.* Estimate h fg for
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Problems 403 Design Problems The fo
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CHAPTER 12 Mixtures of Gases and Va
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12.2 Thermodynamic Properties of Ga
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12.3 Mixtures of Ideal Gases 413 Th
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Page 442 and 443: 12.4 Psychrometrics 417 Finally, th
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Page 446 and 447: 12.6 The Sling Psychrometer 421 The
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Page 464 and 465: Summary 439 Last, we combine Dalton
Page 466 and 467: Problems 441 Problems (* indicates
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Page 472 and 473: CHAPTER 13 Vapor and Gas Power Cycl
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Page 488 and 489: 13.5 Operating Efficiencies 463 b.
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Page 502 and 503: 13.9 Rankine Cycle with Reheat 477
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Page 518 and 519: 13.15 Lenoir Cycle 493 Exercises 28
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13.21 Diesel Cycle 515 Solution a.
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13.22 Modern Prime Mover Developmen
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13.23 Second Law Analysis of Vapor
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Summary 525 Fill port 160 mm End of
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Problems 527 7. The thermal efficie
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efficiency increase if the condense
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Problems 531 horsepower hour. Assum
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Problems 533 72. Determine the valu
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CHAPTER 14 Vapor and Gas Refrigerat
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14.3 Carnot Refrigeration Cycle 537
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14.4 In the Beginning There Was Ice
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14.4 In the Beginning There Was Ice
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14.5 Vapor-Compression Refrigeratio
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14.5 Vapor-Compression Refrigeratio
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14.6 Refrigerants 547 T 3 2s 2 p 3
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14.7 Refrigerant Numbers 549 14.7 R
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14.7 Refrigerant Numbers 551 R-110
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14.8 CFCs and the Ozone Layer 553 H
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14.9 Cascade and Multistage Vapor-C
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14.10 Absorption Refrigeration 561
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14.11 Commercial and Household Refr
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14.14 Reversed Brayton Cycle Refrig
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14.14 Reversed Brayton Cycle Refrig
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14.15 Reversed Stirling Cycle Refri
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14.16 Miscellaneous Refrigeration T
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14.16 Miscellaneous Refrigeration T
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14.18 Second Law Analysis of Refrig
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14.18 Second Law Analysis of Refrig
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2. The coefficient of performance o
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Problems 585 13.* A refrigeration u
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Problems 587 Loop B Station 1B Stat
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Problems 589 under these conditions
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CHAPTER 15 Chemical Thermodynamics
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15.2 Stoichiometric Equations 593 1
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15.2 Stoichiometric Equations 595 C
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15.3 Organic Fuels 597 ANSWERS SOME
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15.4 Fuel Modeling 599 Hydrocarbon
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15.4 Fuel Modeling 601 equation, si
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15.5 Standard Reference State 603 I
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15.6 Heat of Formation 605 and H 2
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15.7 Heat of Reaction 607 EXAMPLE 1
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15.7 Heat of Reaction 609 CRITICAL
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15.7 Heat of Reaction 611 Then, h P
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15.8 Adiabatic Flame Temperature 61
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15.9 Maximum Explosion Pressure 619
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15.10 Entropy Production in Chemica
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15.10 Entropy Production in Chemica
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15.11 Entropy of Formation and Gibb
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15.12 Chemical Equilibrium and Diss
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H 2 O !ð1 − yÞH 2 O + yðv H2
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15.14 The van’t Hoff Equation 635
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15.15 Fuel Cells 637 Anode Electrol
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15.15 Fuel Cells 639 The maximum po
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15.16 Chemical Availability 641 and
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ðn i /n fuel Þðc pi Þ E system
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Problems 645 where j = 4n + m kgmol
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Problems 647 c. The percent excess
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Problems 649 77. Determine the mola
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CHAPTER 16 Compressible Fluid Flow
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16.3 Isentropic Stagnation Properti
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16.4 The Mach Number 655 Note that
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16.4 The Mach Number 657 Table 16.1
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16.4 The Mach Number 659 Since for
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16.5 Converging-Diverging Flows 661
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16.5 Converging-Diverging Flows 663
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16.6 Choked Flow 665 T a a p a = co
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16.6 Choked Flow 667 Exercises 16.
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16.7 Reynolds Transport Theorem 669
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16.7 Reynolds Transport Theorem 671
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16.8 Linear Momentum Rate Balance 6
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16.9 Shock Waves 675 16.9 SHOCK WAV
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16.9 Shock Waves 677 and, for an id
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16.9 Shock Waves 679 6 5 4 S P /(m
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16.10 Nozzle and Diffuser Efficienc
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16.10 Nozzle and Diffuser Efficienc
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Summary 685 Since for a diffuser, M
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43. 0.800 lbm/s of air passes throu
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Problems 691 A plot of this functio
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CHAPTER 17 Thermodynamics of Biolog
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17.3 Thermodynamics of Biological C
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17.3 Thermodynamics of Biological C
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17.4 Energy Conversion Efficiency o
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17.4 Energy Conversion Efficiency o
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17.5 Metabolism 703 Table 17.3 Brea
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17.6 Thermodynamics of Nutrition an
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17.7 Limits to Biological Growth 71
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17.7 Limits to Biological Growth 71
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17.8 Locomotion Transport Number 71
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17.9 Thermodynamics of Aging and De
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17.9 Thermodynamics of Aging and De
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1/3 V most efficient = P o ρAC D S
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Problems 723 a. If the monster cons
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Problems 725 the officer asks Paul
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CHAPTER 18 Introduction to Statisti
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18.3 Kinetic Theory of Gases 729 3.
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U trans = 3 2 NkT (Continued ) 18.3
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18.4 Intermolecular Collisions 733
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18.5 Molecular Velocity Distributio
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18.5 Molecular Velocity Distributio
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18.6 Equipartition of Energy 739 We
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18.7 Introduction to Mathematical P
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18.8 Quantum Statistical Thermodyna
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18.9 Three Classical Quantum Statis
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18.11 Monatomic Maxwell-Boltzmann G
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18.12 Diatomic Maxwell-Boltzmann Ga
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18.12 Diatomic Maxwell-Boltzmann Ga
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18.13 Polyatomic Maxwell-Boltzmann
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Summary 759 In this chapter, we sum
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Problems 761 4. Find the temperatur
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CHAPTER 19 Introduction to Coupled
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19.3 Linear Phenomenological Equati
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19.4 Thermoelectric Coupling 767 Eq
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19.4 Thermoelectric Coupling 769 Th
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19.4 Thermoelectric Coupling 771 wh
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19.4 Thermoelectric Coupling 773 Th
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19.4 Thermoelectric Coupling 775 b.
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19.5 Thermomechanical Coupling 777
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water), it seems reasonable that li
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Problems 785 b. For a Knudson gas,
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Appendix A: Physical Constants and
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Appendix B: Greek and Latin Origins
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Appendix B 791 Table B.4 Plural End
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Index Page numbers followed by f in
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Index 795 E e (specific energy), 10
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Index 797 Isobaric coefficient of v
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Index 799 Ranque, Georges Joseph, 3
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Index 801 William III, King of Engl
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Modern Engineering Thermodynamics

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