Modern Engineering Thermodynamics

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14.7 Refrigerant Numbers 549 14.7 REFRIGERANT NUMBERS Most halogenated hydrocarbons used in refrigeration have a molecular structure of the form C a H b Cl c F d and the atomic valences require that c = 2(a +1)− b − d. These compounds are given refrigerant R numbers defined by C a H b Cl c F d is refrigerant number: R-ða − 1Þðb + 1Þd, where c = 2ða + 1Þ − b − d (14.8) When a = 1, then a − 1 = 0 (the methane series of halogenated hydrocarbons) and the zero is omitted in the R number. For example, carbon tetrachloride, CCl 4 ,hasa = 1, b = 0, c = 4, and d = 0. Consequently, its R number is R-(0)(0 + 1)0 = R-010 = R-10. Bromate compounds are indicated with a B after the R number followed by the number of bromine atoms. For example, CBrF 3 = R-13B1. Also, ethane and higher hydrocarbon bases can have numerous isomers (compounds containing the same number of atoms, but assembled in different ways). In these cases, the most symmetrical atomic arrangement is given the base R number R-(a − 1)(b +1)d, and the remaining arrangements are given the suffixes a, b, c, and so forth as the refrigerant molecule become less and less symmetrical. For example the differences between R-134 (CHF 2 -CHF 2 ) and R-134a (CH 2 FCF 3 ) are illustrated next: F F H F H C C H F C C F F F H F R 134 R 134a Therefore, Midgley’s CCl 2 F 2 with a = 1, b = 0, c = 2, and d = 2becameRefrigerant-12 (abbreviated R-12), or Freon-12 if manufactured by DuPont. Similarly, CHClF 2 (a = b = c = 1, d = 2) became Refrigerant-22 or R-22, CCl 3 F(a = 1, b = 0, c = 3, d = 1) became Refrigerant-11 or R-11, and so forth. Ethane-based refrigerants are the 100 number series, and the ethane-based hexachloroethane C 2 Cl 6 (a = 2, b = 0, c = 6, d = 0) became Refrigerant-110 or R-110, and so forth. Propane-based refrigerants are the 200 number series, and butane-based refrigerants are assigned the 600 number series. Inorganic (i.e., nonhydrocarbon based) refrigerants are assigned the 700 number series with the last two digits being the molecular mass of the refrigerant. For example, ammonia, NH 3 ,isRefrigerant-717 and water, H 2 O, is Refrigerant-718. Table 14.1 lists the ASHRAE number, chemical formula, and boiling point of some common refrigerants. Figure 14.14 presents typical saturation temperaturepressure curves for some common refrigerants plus a graphical representation of the refrigerant derivatives of methane, CH 4 , and ethane, C 2 H 6 . Table 14.1 The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers Refrigerant Numbering System for Some Common Refrigerants Boiling Point at Atmospheric Pressure Refrigerant Number Chemical Formula °F °C R-10 CCl 4 170.2 76.8 R-11 CCl 3 F 74.9 23.8 R-12 CCl 2 F 2 −21.6 −29.8 R-21 CHCl 2 F 48.1 8.9 R-22 CHClF 2 −41.4 −40.8 R-30 CH 2 Cl 2 105.2 40.7 R-40 CH 3 Cl −14.8 −23.8 R-50 CH 4 (methane) −259.0 −161.7 R-110 C 2 Cl 6 365.0 185.0 R-111 C 2 Cl 5 F 279.0 137.2 R-112 C 2 Cl 4 F 2 199.0 92.8 R-123 CHCl 2 CF 3 81.7 27.6 R-134a CH 2 FCF 3 −15.7 −26.2 R-170 C 2 H 6 (ethane) −127.8 −88.8 R-290 C 3 H 8 (propane) −43.7 −42.1 R-600 C 4 H 10 (butane) 33.1 0.6 R-717 NH 3 (ammonia) −28.0 −33.3 R-718 H 2 O (water) 212.0 100.0 Source: Reprinted by permission from the ASHRAE Handbook—1985 Fundamentals.
550 CHAPTER 14: Vapor and Gas Refrigeration Cycles Vacuum 110 Ethyl ether 100 90 R-11 Temperature (°F) 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 Sulfur dioxide (R-764) R-12 R-500 Ammonia (R-717) R-22 R-502 10 0 −10 −20 −30 −40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 Inches of Hg Gauge pressure (psig) Vacuum (a) R-10 CCl 4 R-20 CHCl 3 R-11 CFCl 3 R-30 CH 2 Cl R-21 R-12 CHFCl 2 CF 2 Cl 2 R-40 CH 3 Cl R-31 CH 2 FCl R-22 CHF 2 Cl R-13 CF 3 Cl R-50 R-41 CH 3 F R-32 CH 2 F 2 CH 4 (b) Refrigerant derivatives of methane (CH 4 ) R-23 CHF 3 R-14 CF 4
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Modern Engineering Thermodynamics
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Modern Engineering Thermodynamics R
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Dedication WHAT IS AN ENGINEER AND
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Contents PREFACE . . . . . . . . .
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Contents ix 7.6 Heat Engines Runnin
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Contents xi 14.13 Air Standard Gas
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Preface TEXT OBJECTIVES This textbo
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Preface xv Step 5. Write down the b
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Acknowledgments I wish to acknowled
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Resources That Accompany This Book
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List of Symbols A a B COP CR c c p
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Prologue PARIS FRANCE, 10:35 AM, AU
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CHAPTER 1 The Beginning CONTENTS 1.
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1.2 Why Is Thermodynamics Important
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1.3 Getting Answers: A Basic Proble
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1.5 How Do We Measure Things? 7 bei
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1.6 Temperature Units 9 THE DEVELOP
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1.7 Classical Mechanical and Electr
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1.7 Classical Mechanical and Electr
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1.9 Modern Units Systems 15 where M
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1.10 Significant Figures 17 CRITICA
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1.10 Significant Figures 19 WHAT AB
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1.11 Potential and Kinetic Energies
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1.11 Potential and Kinetic Energies
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Summary 25 FIGURE 1.19 Case study 1
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Problems 27 Problems (* indicates p
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Problems 29 14. Determine the mass
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Problems 31 49. Using the CGS units
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CHAPTER 2 Thermodynamic Concepts CO
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2.3 Phases of Matter 35 System boun
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2.4 System States and Thermodynamic
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2.6 Thermodynamic Processes 39 WHAT
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2.7 Pressure and Temperature Scales
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2.9 The Continuum Hypothesis 43 Sur
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2.10 The Balance Concept 45 Solutio
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2.11 The Conservation Concept 47 or
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2.11 The Conservation Concept 49 Th
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Summary 51 change in the mass of X
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Problems 53 Problems (* indicates p
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Problems 55 and Death rate = α 2 +
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CHAPTER 3 Thermodynamic Properties
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3.3 Fun with Mathematics 59 CRITICA
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3.4 Some Exciting New Thermodynamic
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3.6 Enthalpy 63 WHO WAS AMALIE EMMY
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3.7 Phase Diagrams 65 WHO WAS EMMY
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Pressure Vapor 3.7 Phase Diagrams 6
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3.7 Phase Diagrams 69 WHAT IS A “
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3.7 Phase Diagrams 71 considerable
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3.8 Quality 73 10 5 300 C Critical
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3.8 Quality 75 Although Eq. (3.26)
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3.9 Thermodynamic Equations of Stat
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3.10 Thermodynamic Tables 85 Critic
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3.12 Thermodynamic Charts 87 vð100
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3.13 Thermodynamic Property Softwar
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Summary 91 and e = E/m = u + V2 2g
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Problems 93 c. For a saturated mixt
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Problems 95 specific enthalpy of sa
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Problems 97 Table 3.23 Problem 65 M
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CHAPTER 4 The First Law of Thermody
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4.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics
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4.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics
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4.4 Energy Transport Mechanisms 105
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4.5 Point and Path Functions 107 4.
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4.6 Mechanical Work Modes of Energy
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4.7 Nonmechanical Work Modes of Ene
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4.9 Work Efficiency 125 In the case
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4.12 Heat Modes of Energy Transport
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4.13 Heat Transfer Modes 129 Table
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4.14 A Thermodynamic Problem Solvin
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4.14 A Thermodynamic Problem Solvin
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4.15 How to Write a Thermodynamics
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4.15 How to Write a Thermodynamics
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Summary 139 The general open system
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Problems 141 11.* Determine the hea
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Problems 143 where K = 0.810 lbf. D
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Problems 145 Table 4.12 Problem 67
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CHAPTER 5 First Law Closed System A
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5.2 Sealed, Rigid Containers 149 In
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5.4 Power Plants 151 Step 7. Calcul
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5.5 Incompressible Liquids 153 The
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1Q 2 − 1 W 2 = mðu 2 − u 1 Þ
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5.8 Closed System Unsteady State Pr
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5.9 The Explosive Energy of Pressur
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Problems 161 Problems (* indicates
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Problems 163 31. A thermoelectric g
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Problems 165 where v, T, and r are
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CHAPTER 6 First Law Open System App
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6.2 Mass Flow Energy Transport 169
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6.3 Conservation of Energy and Cons
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6.4 Flow Stream Specific Kinetic an
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6.5 Nozzles and Diffusers 175 m (a)
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6.5 Nozzles and Diffusers 177 We ar
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6.6 Throttling Devices 179 These as
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6.6 Throttling Devices 181 For an i
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6.7 Throttling Calorimeter 183 The
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6.8 Heat Exchangers 185 Convective
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6.9 Shaft Work Machines 187 6.9 SHA
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6.9 Shaft Work Machines 189 1 Basem
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6.10 Open System Unsteady State Pro
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Problems 197 we have _m R / _m D =
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Problems 201 32.* A commercial slid
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Summary 203 59. Incompressible liqu
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CHAPTER 7 Second Law of Thermodynam
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7.3 The Second Law of Thermodynamic
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7.4 Carnot’s Heat Engine and the
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7.4 Carnot’s Heat Engine and the
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7.5 The Absolute Temperature Scale
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7.5 The Absolute Temperature Scale
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7.6 Heat Engines Running Backward 2
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7.7 Clausius’s Definition of Entr
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7.8 Numerical Values for Entropy 22
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7.10 Differential Entropy Balance 2
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7.11 Heat Transport of Entropy 229
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7.13 Entropy Production Mechanisms
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7.14 Heat Transfer Production of En
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7.15 Work Mode Production of Entrop
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7.15 Work Mode Production of Entrop
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7.16 Phase Change Entropy Productio
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Summary 241 ■ Indirect method inv
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Problems 243 amount of work W irr i
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Problems 245 a. If the heat pump is
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Problems 247 51. Develop a program
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CHAPTER 8 Second Law Closed System
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8.2 Systems Undergoing Reversible P
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8.3 Systems Undergoing Irreversible
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8.4 Diffusional Mixing 271 Exercise
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Summary 273 Note that this example
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Problems 275 15. A 20.0 ft 3 tank c
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Problems 277 46. a. Determine a for
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CHAPTER 9 Second Law Open System Ap
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9.4 Open System Entropy Balance Equ
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9.4 Open System Entropy Balance Equ
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9.5 Nozzles, Diffusers, and Throttl
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9.5 Nozzles, Diffusers, and Throttl
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9.6 Heat Exchangers 289 Exercises 1
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9.6 Heat Exchangers 291 (T H ) (T H
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9.7 Mixing 293 Now, _m air is given
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9.7 Mixing 295 Critical value of y,
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9.9 Unsteady State Processes in Ope
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Problems 309 Multiplying this equat
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Problems 311 entropy production rat
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Problems 313 heat is added to the b
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Problems 315 55.* Determine the max
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Problems 317 The cavitation process
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CHAPTER 10 Availability Analysis CO
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10.3 What Are Conservative Forces?
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10.6 Availability 323 WHAT IS A SYS
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10.6 Availability 325 and the total
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10.7 Closed System Availability Bal
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10.7 Closed System Availability Bal
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10.8 Flow Availability 331 EXAMPLE
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s − s 0 = c ln T T 0 10.8 Flow Av
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10.10 Modified Availability Rate Ba
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10.10 Modified Availability Rate Ba
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10.11 Energy Efficiency Based on th
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Summary 351 In this problem, we hav
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Summary 353 7. The general open sys
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Problems 355 12.5 Btu/hr·ft ·R. I
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Problems 357 flow rate of 15.0 lbm/
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Problems 359 85. Create a specific
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CHAPTER 11 More Thermodynamic Relat
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11.2 Two New Properties: Helmholtz
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11.2 Two New Properties: Helmholtz
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11.4 Maxwell Equations 367 11.4 MAX
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11.4 Maxwell Equations 369 then,
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11.5 The Clapeyron Equation 371 and
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11.6 Determining u, h, and s from p
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11.7 Constructing Tables and Charts
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11.8 Thermodynamic Charts 381 so th
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11.9 Gas Tables 383 where p r is th
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11.10 Compressibility Factor and Ge
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11.11 Is Steam Ever an Ideal Gas? 3
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Summary 399 equation, and a series
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Problems 401 20.* Estimate h fg for
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Problems 403 Design Problems The fo
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CHAPTER 12 Mixtures of Gases and Va
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12.2 Thermodynamic Properties of Ga
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12.3 Mixtures of Ideal Gases 413 Th
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12.3 Mixtures of Ideal Gases 415 Co
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12.4 Psychrometrics 417 Finally, th
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12.4 Psychrometrics 419 EXAMPLE 12.
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12.6 The Sling Psychrometer 421 The
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12.6 The Sling Psychrometer 423 p w
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12.7 Air Conditioning 425 WHAT ENVI
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12.8 Psychrometric Enthalpies 427 E
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12.8 Psychrometric Enthalpies 429 o
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12.9 Mixtures of Real Gases 431 Whe
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12.9 Mixtures of Real Gases 433 and
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12.9 Mixtures of Real Gases 435 The
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12.9 Mixtures of Real Gases 437 Sol
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Summary 439 Last, we combine Dalton
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Problems 443 exhaust gas is an idea
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Problems 445 57.* Cooling towers ar
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CHAPTER 13 Vapor and Gas Power Cycl
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13.2 Part I. Engines and Vapor Powe
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13.4 Rankine Cycle 457 A B Reversib
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13.5 Operating Efficiencies 459 For
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13.5 Operating Efficiencies 461 13.
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13.5 Operating Efficiencies 463 b.
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13.5 Operating Efficiencies 465 Sta
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13.6 Rankine Cycle with Superheat 4
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13.7 Rankine Cycle with Regeneratio
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13.8 The Development of the Steam T
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13.9 Rankine Cycle with Reheat 477
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13.9 Rankine Cycle with Reheat 479
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13.10 Modern Steam Power Plants 481
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13.12 Air Standard Power Cycles 487
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13.13 Stirling Cycle 489 Q H 4 1 4
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13.14 Ericsson Cycle 491 Q H 4 1 3
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13.15 Lenoir Cycle 493 Exercises 28
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13.16 Brayton Cycle 495 Solution Us
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13.16 Brayton Cycle 497 Equation (7
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Page 542 and 543: 13.22 Modern Prime Mover Developmen
Page 544 and 545: 13.23 Second Law Analysis of Vapor
Page 550 and 551: Summary 525 Fill port 160 mm End of
Page 552 and 553: Problems 527 7. The thermal efficie
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Page 556 and 557: Problems 531 horsepower hour. Assum
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Page 560 and 561: CHAPTER 14 Vapor and Gas Refrigerat
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Page 564 and 565: 14.4 In the Beginning There Was Ice
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Page 568 and 569: 14.5 Vapor-Compression Refrigeratio
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Page 572 and 573: 14.6 Refrigerants 547 T 3 2s 2 p 3
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Page 604 and 605: 14.18 Second Law Analysis of Refrig
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Page 608 and 609: 2. The coefficient of performance o
Page 610 and 611: Problems 585 13.* A refrigeration u
Page 612 and 613: Problems 587 Loop B Station 1B Stat
Page 614 and 615: Problems 589 under these conditions
Page 616 and 617: CHAPTER 15 Chemical Thermodynamics
Page 618 and 619: 15.2 Stoichiometric Equations 593 1
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15.4 Fuel Modeling 599 Hydrocarbon
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15.4 Fuel Modeling 601 equation, si
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15.5 Standard Reference State 603 I
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15.6 Heat of Formation 605 and H 2
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15.7 Heat of Reaction 607 EXAMPLE 1
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15.7 Heat of Reaction 609 CRITICAL
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15.7 Heat of Reaction 611 Then, h P
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15.8 Adiabatic Flame Temperature 61
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15.9 Maximum Explosion Pressure 619
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15.10 Entropy Production in Chemica
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15.10 Entropy Production in Chemica
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15.11 Entropy of Formation and Gibb
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15.12 Chemical Equilibrium and Diss
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H 2 O !ð1 − yÞH 2 O + yðv H2
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15.14 The van’t Hoff Equation 635
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15.15 Fuel Cells 637 Anode Electrol
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15.15 Fuel Cells 639 The maximum po
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15.16 Chemical Availability 641 and
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ðn i /n fuel Þðc pi Þ E system
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Problems 645 where j = 4n + m kgmol
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Problems 647 c. The percent excess
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Problems 649 77. Determine the mola
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CHAPTER 16 Compressible Fluid Flow
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16.3 Isentropic Stagnation Properti
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16.4 The Mach Number 655 Note that
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16.4 The Mach Number 657 Table 16.1
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16.4 The Mach Number 659 Since for
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16.5 Converging-Diverging Flows 661
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16.5 Converging-Diverging Flows 663
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16.6 Choked Flow 665 T a a p a = co
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16.6 Choked Flow 667 Exercises 16.
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16.7 Reynolds Transport Theorem 669
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16.7 Reynolds Transport Theorem 671
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16.8 Linear Momentum Rate Balance 6
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16.9 Shock Waves 675 16.9 SHOCK WAV
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16.9 Shock Waves 677 and, for an id
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16.9 Shock Waves 679 6 5 4 S P /(m
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16.10 Nozzle and Diffuser Efficienc
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16.10 Nozzle and Diffuser Efficienc
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Summary 685 Since for a diffuser, M
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43. 0.800 lbm/s of air passes throu
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Problems 691 A plot of this functio
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CHAPTER 17 Thermodynamics of Biolog
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17.3 Thermodynamics of Biological C
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17.3 Thermodynamics of Biological C
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17.4 Energy Conversion Efficiency o
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17.4 Energy Conversion Efficiency o
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17.5 Metabolism 703 Table 17.3 Brea
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17.6 Thermodynamics of Nutrition an
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17.7 Limits to Biological Growth 71
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17.7 Limits to Biological Growth 71
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17.8 Locomotion Transport Number 71
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17.9 Thermodynamics of Aging and De
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17.9 Thermodynamics of Aging and De
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1/3 V most efficient = P o ρAC D S
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Problems 723 a. If the monster cons
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Problems 725 the officer asks Paul
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CHAPTER 18 Introduction to Statisti
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18.3 Kinetic Theory of Gases 729 3.
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U trans = 3 2 NkT (Continued ) 18.3
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18.4 Intermolecular Collisions 733
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18.5 Molecular Velocity Distributio
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18.5 Molecular Velocity Distributio
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18.6 Equipartition of Energy 739 We
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18.7 Introduction to Mathematical P
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18.8 Quantum Statistical Thermodyna
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18.9 Three Classical Quantum Statis
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18.11 Monatomic Maxwell-Boltzmann G
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18.12 Diatomic Maxwell-Boltzmann Ga
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18.12 Diatomic Maxwell-Boltzmann Ga
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18.13 Polyatomic Maxwell-Boltzmann
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Summary 759 In this chapter, we sum
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Problems 761 4. Find the temperatur
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CHAPTER 19 Introduction to Coupled
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19.3 Linear Phenomenological Equati
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19.4 Thermoelectric Coupling 767 Eq
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19.4 Thermoelectric Coupling 769 Th
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19.4 Thermoelectric Coupling 771 wh
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19.4 Thermoelectric Coupling 773 Th
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19.4 Thermoelectric Coupling 775 b.
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19.5 Thermomechanical Coupling 777
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water), it seems reasonable that li
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Problems 785 b. For a Knudson gas,
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Appendix A: Physical Constants and
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Appendix B: Greek and Latin Origins
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Appendix B 791 Table B.4 Plural End
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Index Page numbers followed by f in
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Index 795 E e (specific energy), 10
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Index 797 Isobaric coefficient of v
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Index 799 Ranque, Georges Joseph, 3
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Index 801 William III, King of Engl
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Modern Engineering Thermodynamics

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