Modern Engineering Thermodynamics

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14.11 Commercial and Household Refrigerators 565 Freezer compartment (single evaporator) Convective air flow Convective air flow Normal storage (Evaporator #1) Vegetable storage Condensing unit Convective air flow Freezer compartment (Evaporator #2) (a) Single-evaporator household refrigerator (b) Dual-evaporator household refrigerator FIGURE 14.23 Illustration of (a) single-evaporator system and (b) dual-evaporator system. absorption refrigeration has no moving parts and operates from a heat source instead of a work source, it periodically attracts renewed attention. It is particularly attractive from an energy conservation point of view, since it can operate from waste heat or solar energy. Early vapor-compression and absorption household refrigerators had only one evaporator, located around the freezer compartment. Cooling of the remaining refrigeration space was produced by the natural convection of air passing around the outside of the freezer compartment. Many inexpensive portable refrigerators are still made this way today. The first true “dual-temperature” refrigerator, with separate freezer and refrigeration evaporation coils, appeared in 1939. In single-evaporator refrigerator-freezers, the evaporator temperature must be colder than the freezer temperature. A dual-evaporator refrigerator allows the pressure and temperature in the evaporators to be controlled separately. The fresh food evaporator is warmer than the freezer evaporator temperature, thus reducing the irreversibilities associated with the heat transfer. Also, in a single-evaporator system, humid air from the fresh food compartment comes in contact with the cold freezer evaporator, producing frost. When the dehumidified dry air is returned to the fresh food cabinet, it dries the food and reduces food quality. If the fresh food evaporator more closely matches the air temperature in the fresh food compartment, it dehumidifies the air less and builds up less frost. This decreases the need for defrosting with a heater and increases energy efficiency. Figure 14.23 illustrates these differences. EXAMPLE 14.9 A new household refrigerator-freezer combination unit is being designed with the dual-evaporator system shown in Figures 14.23 and 14.24. The freezer compartment is to be at −18.0°C and the refrigerator compartment is to be at 4.00°C. The outlet of the condenser is at 30.0°C. The cooling capacities of both the refrigeration and the freezer compartments are to be 422 kJ/h each. The system uses refrigerant R-134a with a compressor isentropic efficiency of 80%. Determine a. The coefficient of performance for this design. b. The mass flow rate of refrigerant required. c. The quality at the outlet of the refrigeration evaporator. (Continued )
566 CHAPTER 14: Vapor and Gas Refrigeration Cycles EXAMPLE 14.9 (Continued ) 4h 3 Condenser Q refrig. = 422 kJ/h Refrigeration evaporator 5 2s Compressor 1 Freezer evaporator 6h Q freezer = 422 kJ/h 2s T 3 4h 5 6h 1 s FIGURE 14.24 Example 14.9. Solution The properties of the refrigerant at the states shown in Figure 14.24 are as follows (see Tables C.7e, C.7f, and C.8d for the numerical values): Station 1—Compressor inlet Station 2s—Compressor outlet x 1 = 1:00 s 2s = s 1 = 0:9315 kJ/kg.K T 1 = −18:0°C p 2s = p 3 = p sat ð30:0°CÞ = 0:770 MPa h 1 = 236:53 kJ/kg h 2s = 271:0 kJ/kg s 1 = 0:9315 kJ/kg.K ðinterpolation in Table C:7fÞ Station 3—Condenser outlet Station 4h—Refrigerator evaporator inlet x 3 = 0:00 h 4h = h 3 T 3 = 30:0°C T 4h = 4:00°C p 3 = p sat ð30:0°CÞ = 0:770 MPa No further information is needed: h 3 = h f ð30:0°CÞ = 91:49 kJ/kg Station 5—Refrigerator evaporator outlet Station 6h—Freezer evaporator inlet x 5 = ? h 6h = h 5 = ? T 5 = T 4h = 4:00°C T 6h = −18:0°C h 5 = ? No further information is needed: The isentropic efficiency of the compressor is 80.0%, or (η s ) comp = 0.800. a. The COP for this system is the ratio of the total heat rate removed from the refrigeration plus freezer compartments divided by the power input to the compressor, or COP = but since h 5 = h 6h here, this equation reduces to COP = _ Q R + _Q F _W C = ðh 5 − h 4h Þ + ðh 1 − h 6h Þ ðh 2s − h 1 Þ/ðη s Þ comp h 1 − h 4h = 236:53 − 91:49 ðh 2s − h 1 Þ/ðη s Þ comp ð271:0 − 236:53Þ/0:800 = 3:37 so that the system COP does not depend on states 5 or 6h. b. Since h 5 = h 6h , we can write the refrigeration and freezer compartment cooling rates as _Q R = _m ref ðh 5 − h 4h Þ and _Q F = _m ref ðh 1 − h 6h Þ = _m ref ðh 1 − h 5 Þ. Solving these two equations for _m ref gives _m ref = Q _ R + _Q F h 1 − h 4h = ð422 + 422 kJ/hÞð1 h/60minÞ 236:53 − 91:49 kJ/kg = 0:0970 kg/min
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Modern Engineering Thermodynamics
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Modern Engineering Thermodynamics R
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Dedication WHAT IS AN ENGINEER AND
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Contents PREFACE . . . . . . . . .
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Contents ix 7.6 Heat Engines Runnin
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Contents xi 14.13 Air Standard Gas
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Preface TEXT OBJECTIVES This textbo
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Preface xv Step 5. Write down the b
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Acknowledgments I wish to acknowled
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Resources That Accompany This Book
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List of Symbols A a B COP CR c c p
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Prologue PARIS FRANCE, 10:35 AM, AU
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CHAPTER 1 The Beginning CONTENTS 1.
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1.2 Why Is Thermodynamics Important
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1.3 Getting Answers: A Basic Proble
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1.5 How Do We Measure Things? 7 bei
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1.6 Temperature Units 9 THE DEVELOP
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1.7 Classical Mechanical and Electr
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1.7 Classical Mechanical and Electr
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1.9 Modern Units Systems 15 where M
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1.10 Significant Figures 17 CRITICA
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1.10 Significant Figures 19 WHAT AB
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1.11 Potential and Kinetic Energies
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1.11 Potential and Kinetic Energies
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Summary 25 FIGURE 1.19 Case study 1
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Problems 27 Problems (* indicates p
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Problems 29 14. Determine the mass
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Problems 31 49. Using the CGS units
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CHAPTER 2 Thermodynamic Concepts CO
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2.3 Phases of Matter 35 System boun
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2.4 System States and Thermodynamic
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2.6 Thermodynamic Processes 39 WHAT
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2.7 Pressure and Temperature Scales
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2.9 The Continuum Hypothesis 43 Sur
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2.10 The Balance Concept 45 Solutio
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2.11 The Conservation Concept 47 or
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2.11 The Conservation Concept 49 Th
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Summary 51 change in the mass of X
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Problems 53 Problems (* indicates p
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Problems 55 and Death rate = α 2 +
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CHAPTER 3 Thermodynamic Properties
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3.3 Fun with Mathematics 59 CRITICA
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3.4 Some Exciting New Thermodynamic
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3.6 Enthalpy 63 WHO WAS AMALIE EMMY
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3.7 Phase Diagrams 65 WHO WAS EMMY
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Pressure Vapor 3.7 Phase Diagrams 6
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3.7 Phase Diagrams 69 WHAT IS A “
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3.7 Phase Diagrams 71 considerable
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3.8 Quality 73 10 5 300 C Critical
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3.8 Quality 75 Although Eq. (3.26)
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3.9 Thermodynamic Equations of Stat
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3.10 Thermodynamic Tables 85 Critic
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3.12 Thermodynamic Charts 87 vð100
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3.13 Thermodynamic Property Softwar
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Summary 91 and e = E/m = u + V2 2g
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Problems 93 c. For a saturated mixt
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Problems 95 specific enthalpy of sa
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Problems 97 Table 3.23 Problem 65 M
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CHAPTER 4 The First Law of Thermody
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4.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics
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4.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics
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4.4 Energy Transport Mechanisms 105
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4.5 Point and Path Functions 107 4.
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4.6 Mechanical Work Modes of Energy
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4.7 Nonmechanical Work Modes of Ene
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4.9 Work Efficiency 125 In the case
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4.12 Heat Modes of Energy Transport
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4.13 Heat Transfer Modes 129 Table
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4.14 A Thermodynamic Problem Solvin
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4.14 A Thermodynamic Problem Solvin
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4.15 How to Write a Thermodynamics
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4.15 How to Write a Thermodynamics
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Summary 139 The general open system
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Problems 141 11.* Determine the hea
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Problems 143 where K = 0.810 lbf. D
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Problems 145 Table 4.12 Problem 67
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CHAPTER 5 First Law Closed System A
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5.2 Sealed, Rigid Containers 149 In
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5.4 Power Plants 151 Step 7. Calcul
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5.5 Incompressible Liquids 153 The
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1Q 2 − 1 W 2 = mðu 2 − u 1 Þ
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5.8 Closed System Unsteady State Pr
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5.9 The Explosive Energy of Pressur
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Problems 161 Problems (* indicates
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Problems 163 31. A thermoelectric g
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Problems 165 where v, T, and r are
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CHAPTER 6 First Law Open System App
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6.2 Mass Flow Energy Transport 169
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6.3 Conservation of Energy and Cons
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6.4 Flow Stream Specific Kinetic an
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6.5 Nozzles and Diffusers 175 m (a)
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6.5 Nozzles and Diffusers 177 We ar
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6.6 Throttling Devices 179 These as
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6.6 Throttling Devices 181 For an i
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6.7 Throttling Calorimeter 183 The
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6.8 Heat Exchangers 185 Convective
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6.9 Shaft Work Machines 187 6.9 SHA
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6.9 Shaft Work Machines 189 1 Basem
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6.10 Open System Unsteady State Pro
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Problems 197 we have _m R / _m D =
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Problems 201 32.* A commercial slid
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Summary 203 59. Incompressible liqu
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CHAPTER 7 Second Law of Thermodynam
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7.3 The Second Law of Thermodynamic
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7.4 Carnot’s Heat Engine and the
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7.4 Carnot’s Heat Engine and the
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7.5 The Absolute Temperature Scale
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7.5 The Absolute Temperature Scale
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7.6 Heat Engines Running Backward 2
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7.7 Clausius’s Definition of Entr
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7.8 Numerical Values for Entropy 22
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7.10 Differential Entropy Balance 2
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7.11 Heat Transport of Entropy 229
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7.13 Entropy Production Mechanisms
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7.14 Heat Transfer Production of En
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7.15 Work Mode Production of Entrop
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7.15 Work Mode Production of Entrop
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7.16 Phase Change Entropy Productio
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Summary 241 ■ Indirect method inv
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Problems 243 amount of work W irr i
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Problems 245 a. If the heat pump is
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Problems 247 51. Develop a program
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CHAPTER 8 Second Law Closed System
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8.2 Systems Undergoing Reversible P
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8.3 Systems Undergoing Irreversible
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8.4 Diffusional Mixing 271 Exercise
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Summary 273 Note that this example
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Problems 275 15. A 20.0 ft 3 tank c
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Problems 277 46. a. Determine a for
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CHAPTER 9 Second Law Open System Ap
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9.4 Open System Entropy Balance Equ
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9.4 Open System Entropy Balance Equ
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9.5 Nozzles, Diffusers, and Throttl
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9.5 Nozzles, Diffusers, and Throttl
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9.6 Heat Exchangers 289 Exercises 1
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9.6 Heat Exchangers 291 (T H ) (T H
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9.7 Mixing 293 Now, _m air is given
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9.7 Mixing 295 Critical value of y,
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9.9 Unsteady State Processes in Ope
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Problems 309 Multiplying this equat
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Problems 311 entropy production rat
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Problems 313 heat is added to the b
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Problems 315 55.* Determine the max
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Problems 317 The cavitation process
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CHAPTER 10 Availability Analysis CO
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10.3 What Are Conservative Forces?
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10.6 Availability 323 WHAT IS A SYS
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10.6 Availability 325 and the total
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10.7 Closed System Availability Bal
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10.7 Closed System Availability Bal
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10.8 Flow Availability 331 EXAMPLE
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s − s 0 = c ln T T 0 10.8 Flow Av
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10.10 Modified Availability Rate Ba
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10.10 Modified Availability Rate Ba
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10.11 Energy Efficiency Based on th
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Summary 351 In this problem, we hav
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Summary 353 7. The general open sys
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Problems 355 12.5 Btu/hr·ft ·R. I
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Problems 357 flow rate of 15.0 lbm/
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Problems 359 85. Create a specific
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CHAPTER 11 More Thermodynamic Relat
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11.2 Two New Properties: Helmholtz
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11.2 Two New Properties: Helmholtz
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11.4 Maxwell Equations 367 11.4 MAX
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11.4 Maxwell Equations 369 then,
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11.5 The Clapeyron Equation 371 and
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11.6 Determining u, h, and s from p
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11.7 Constructing Tables and Charts
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11.8 Thermodynamic Charts 381 so th
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11.9 Gas Tables 383 where p r is th
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11.10 Compressibility Factor and Ge
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11.11 Is Steam Ever an Ideal Gas? 3
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Summary 399 equation, and a series
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Problems 401 20.* Estimate h fg for
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Problems 403 Design Problems The fo
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CHAPTER 12 Mixtures of Gases and Va
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12.2 Thermodynamic Properties of Ga
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12.3 Mixtures of Ideal Gases 413 Th
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12.3 Mixtures of Ideal Gases 415 Co
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12.4 Psychrometrics 417 Finally, th
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12.4 Psychrometrics 419 EXAMPLE 12.
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12.6 The Sling Psychrometer 421 The
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12.6 The Sling Psychrometer 423 p w
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12.7 Air Conditioning 425 WHAT ENVI
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12.8 Psychrometric Enthalpies 427 E
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12.8 Psychrometric Enthalpies 429 o
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12.9 Mixtures of Real Gases 431 Whe
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12.9 Mixtures of Real Gases 433 and
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12.9 Mixtures of Real Gases 435 The
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12.9 Mixtures of Real Gases 437 Sol
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Summary 439 Last, we combine Dalton
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Problems 443 exhaust gas is an idea
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Problems 445 57.* Cooling towers ar
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CHAPTER 13 Vapor and Gas Power Cycl
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13.2 Part I. Engines and Vapor Powe
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13.4 Rankine Cycle 457 A B Reversib
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13.5 Operating Efficiencies 459 For
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13.5 Operating Efficiencies 461 13.
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13.5 Operating Efficiencies 463 b.
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13.5 Operating Efficiencies 465 Sta
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13.6 Rankine Cycle with Superheat 4
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13.7 Rankine Cycle with Regeneratio
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13.8 The Development of the Steam T
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13.9 Rankine Cycle with Reheat 477
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13.9 Rankine Cycle with Reheat 479
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13.10 Modern Steam Power Plants 481
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13.12 Air Standard Power Cycles 487
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13.13 Stirling Cycle 489 Q H 4 1 4
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13.14 Ericsson Cycle 491 Q H 4 1 3
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13.15 Lenoir Cycle 493 Exercises 28
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13.16 Brayton Cycle 495 Solution Us
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13.16 Brayton Cycle 497 Equation (7
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13.17 Aircraft Gas Turbine Engines
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13.17 Aircraft Gas Turbine Engines
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13.18 Otto Cycle 503 T Q H 1 1 1 v
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13.18 Otto Cycle 505 Exercises 40.
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13.18 Otto Cycle 507 and, since the
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13.20 Miller Cycle 509 13.19.1 Mode
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13.20 Miller Cycle 511 Then, from F
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13.21 Diesel Cycle 513 to stroll on
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Page 552 and 553: Problems 527 7. The thermal efficie
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Page 556 and 557: Problems 531 horsepower hour. Assum
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Page 568 and 569: 14.5 Vapor-Compression Refrigeratio
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Page 612 and 613: Problems 587 Loop B Station 1B Stat
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Page 616 and 617: CHAPTER 15 Chemical Thermodynamics
Page 618 and 619: 15.2 Stoichiometric Equations 593 1
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Page 622 and 623: 15.3 Organic Fuels 597 ANSWERS SOME
Page 624 and 625: 15.4 Fuel Modeling 599 Hydrocarbon
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Page 630 and 631: 15.6 Heat of Formation 605 and H 2
Page 632 and 633: 15.7 Heat of Reaction 607 EXAMPLE 1
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15.8 Adiabatic Flame Temperature 61
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15.8 Adiabatic Flame Temperature 61
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15.9 Maximum Explosion Pressure 619
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15.10 Entropy Production in Chemica
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15.10 Entropy Production in Chemica
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15.11 Entropy of Formation and Gibb
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15.12 Chemical Equilibrium and Diss
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H 2 O !ð1 − yÞH 2 O + yðv H2
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15.14 The van’t Hoff Equation 635
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15.15 Fuel Cells 637 Anode Electrol
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15.15 Fuel Cells 639 The maximum po
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15.16 Chemical Availability 641 and
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ðn i /n fuel Þðc pi Þ E system
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Problems 645 where j = 4n + m kgmol
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Problems 647 c. The percent excess
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Problems 649 77. Determine the mola
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CHAPTER 16 Compressible Fluid Flow
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16.3 Isentropic Stagnation Properti
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16.4 The Mach Number 655 Note that
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16.4 The Mach Number 657 Table 16.1
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16.4 The Mach Number 659 Since for
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16.5 Converging-Diverging Flows 661
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16.5 Converging-Diverging Flows 663
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16.6 Choked Flow 665 T a a p a = co
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16.6 Choked Flow 667 Exercises 16.
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16.7 Reynolds Transport Theorem 669
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16.7 Reynolds Transport Theorem 671
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16.8 Linear Momentum Rate Balance 6
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16.9 Shock Waves 675 16.9 SHOCK WAV
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16.9 Shock Waves 677 and, for an id
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16.9 Shock Waves 679 6 5 4 S P /(m
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16.10 Nozzle and Diffuser Efficienc
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16.10 Nozzle and Diffuser Efficienc
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Summary 685 Since for a diffuser, M
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43. 0.800 lbm/s of air passes throu
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Problems 691 A plot of this functio
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CHAPTER 17 Thermodynamics of Biolog
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17.3 Thermodynamics of Biological C
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17.3 Thermodynamics of Biological C
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17.4 Energy Conversion Efficiency o
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17.4 Energy Conversion Efficiency o
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17.5 Metabolism 703 Table 17.3 Brea
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17.6 Thermodynamics of Nutrition an
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17.7 Limits to Biological Growth 71
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17.7 Limits to Biological Growth 71
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17.8 Locomotion Transport Number 71
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17.9 Thermodynamics of Aging and De
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17.9 Thermodynamics of Aging and De
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1/3 V most efficient = P o ρAC D S
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Problems 723 a. If the monster cons
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Problems 725 the officer asks Paul
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CHAPTER 18 Introduction to Statisti
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18.3 Kinetic Theory of Gases 729 3.
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U trans = 3 2 NkT (Continued ) 18.3
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18.4 Intermolecular Collisions 733
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18.5 Molecular Velocity Distributio
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18.5 Molecular Velocity Distributio
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18.6 Equipartition of Energy 739 We
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18.7 Introduction to Mathematical P
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18.8 Quantum Statistical Thermodyna
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18.9 Three Classical Quantum Statis
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18.11 Monatomic Maxwell-Boltzmann G
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18.12 Diatomic Maxwell-Boltzmann Ga
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18.12 Diatomic Maxwell-Boltzmann Ga
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18.13 Polyatomic Maxwell-Boltzmann
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Summary 759 In this chapter, we sum
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Problems 761 4. Find the temperatur
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CHAPTER 19 Introduction to Coupled
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19.3 Linear Phenomenological Equati
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19.4 Thermoelectric Coupling 767 Eq
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19.4 Thermoelectric Coupling 769 Th
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19.4 Thermoelectric Coupling 771 wh
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19.4 Thermoelectric Coupling 773 Th
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19.4 Thermoelectric Coupling 775 b.
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19.5 Thermomechanical Coupling 777
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water), it seems reasonable that li
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Problems 785 b. For a Knudson gas,
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Appendix A: Physical Constants and
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Appendix B: Greek and Latin Origins
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Appendix B 791 Table B.4 Plural End
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Index Page numbers followed by f in
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Index 795 E e (specific energy), 10
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Index 797 Isobaric coefficient of v
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Index 799 Ranque, Georges Joseph, 3
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Index 801 William III, King of Engl
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Modern Engineering Thermodynamics

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