Modern Engineering Thermodynamics

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13.7 Rankine Cycle with Regeneration 473 pressure), and pump 2 brings the pressure the rest of the way up from 80.0 to 200. psia. Then, v 3 = v f (1.00 psia) = 0.01614 ft 3 /lbm and v 6 = v f (80.0 psia) = 0.01757 ft 3 /lbm. The additional monitoring station data needed are Station 4s p 4s = p 4 = 80:0 psia s 4s = s 3 = 0:1326 Btu/ðlbm . RÞ Station 5s p 5s = p 4 = 80:0 psia h 4s = h 3 + v 3 ðp 4 – p 3 Þ x 5s = 0:9358 s 5s = s 1 = 1:5466 Btu/ðlbm . RÞ = 69:7 + ð0:01614Þð80:0 – 1:00Þð144/778:16Þ h 5s = 1125:7 Btu/lbm = 69:7 + 0:236 = 69:9 Btu/lbm Station 6 p 6 = 80:0 psia x 6 = 0:00 Station 7s p 7s = p 7 = 200: psia s 7s = s 6 = 0:4535 Btu/ðlbm . RÞ h 6 = 282:2 Btu/lbm h 7s = h 6 + v 6 ðp 7 – p 6 Þ s 6 = 0:4535 Btu/ðlbm . RÞ = 282:2 + ð0:01757Þð200: – 80:0Þð144/778Þ = 282:2 + 0:390 = 282:6 Btu/lbm where, at station 5s, wedeterminethatx 5s = (1.5466 – 0.4535)/1.1681 = 0.9358 and h 5s = 282.2 + (0.9358)(901.4) = 1125.7 Btu/lbm. Equation (13.11) now gives the value of y as y = h 6 − h 4s 282:6 − 69:9 = h 5s − h 4s 1125:7 − 69:9 = 0:201 then, the isentropic thermal efficiency of the cycle is given by Eq. (13.12b) with all the η s = 1.0 as ðη T Þ Rankine cycle = 1 − h 2s − h 3 ð1 − yÞ = 1 − 863:5 − 69:7 ð1 − 0:201Þ = 0:308 = 30:8% h 1 − h 7s 1199:3 − 282:6 with 1 regenerator By altering the value of y (the amount of steam bled from the turbine) and recomputing the value of h 7s , it becomes clear that the cycle thermal efficiency is maximized at 31.2% when y = 0.138. This is shown in Figure 13.23. 32.0 0.30 Cycle thermal efficiency Cycle thermal efficiency (%) 31.0 30.0 Regenerator mass fraction 0.20 0.10 Regenerator mass fraction, y FIGURE 13.23 Example 13.6, plot of solution. 29.0 0 40 80 120 160 200 0.00 Regenerator pressure, psia Exercises 16. The operator of the plant described in Example 13.6 changes the boiler outlet state from dry saturated steam at 200. psia to dry saturated steam at 400. psia. Determine the mass fraction of regeneration steam that is now required to produce saturated liquid water at 80.0 psia at the end of the open loop regenerator. Assume all the other variables remain unchanged. Answer: y = 0.210 17. If the interstage steam pressure in Example 13.6 is increased from 80.0 to 150. psia, determine the new isentropic Rankine cycle thermal efficiency. Assume all the other variables remain unchanged. Answer: (η T ) isentropic Rankine = 31.0%. 18. The power plant engineer mentioned in Exercise 16 just informed us that the first and second stage prime mover isentropic efficiencies are 75.0% and 68.0%, respectively, and that the boiler feed pump isentropic efficiency is 83.0%. Now determine the actual Rankine cycle thermal efficiency of this system with the 80.0 psia open loop regenerator. Answer: (η T ) Rankine = 25.8%.
474 CHAPTER 13: Vapor and Gas Power Cycles Note that the effect of a single regeneration unit in the previous example was to increase the thermal efficiency by only 1.1%. The extra expense of the regenerators and the additional pumps cannot be economically justified unless the system is large enough to make such a small thermal efficiency increment produces a significant savings in fuel costs. This type of Rankine cycle regeneration was first seriously proposed in 1890 and first implemented in 1898 with a four-stage, quadruple-expansion (quadruplex), reciprocating piston-cylinder steam engine. This system achieved an actual thermal efficiency of 22.8%, which was remarkably high for its day. After about 1910, the production of large reciprocating piston-cylinder steam engines decreased rapidly. They were being replaced by a new prime mover technology, the steam turbine. Consequently, regeneration was temporarily discontinued until about 1920, at which point the steam turbine had been established as the preferred prime mover for large stationary power plants. After 1920, regeneration became standard practice in the design of large, vapor cycle, turbine, prime mover power plants. WHAT IS THE WORLD’S SMALLEST STEAM ENGINE? The world’s smallest steam engine was built using nanotechnology (the ability to create objects at the atomic scale). It is about 5 microns wide (approximately the size of a red blood cell), and was developed by Dr. Jeff Sniegowski at Sandia National Laboratories in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Steam is produced by a small electrical current that boils the water in a tiny boiler. The engine was built using computer chip technology by photographing and reducing an image to a very small size, then etching it on a silicon wafer. The etchings are done in layers to build up the three-dimensional working engine. However, you need an electron microscope to see it. 13.8 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE STEAM TURBINE By the end of the 19th century, the large, slow-speed reciprocating piston-cylinder steam engine had reached its upper limit in size and complexity. When the maximum practical piston speed had been reached in reciprocating steam engine design, the only way to increase the work output further was to increase the physical size of the engine. The largest reciprocating steam engine ever built in the United States was constructed in 1891 by the E. P. Allis Company (renamed the Allis Chalmers Company in 1901) of Milwaukee, Wisconsin. It was installed as a pumping engine at the Chapin mine in Iron Mountain, Michigan, in 1892. It was a duplex steeple compound condensing engine with high-pressure cylinders 50. inches in diameter and low-pressure cylinders 100. inches in diameter, both with strokes of 10 ft. It was 54 ft high, 75 ft long, weighed 725 tons, and had a flywheel 40. ft in diameter. At its maximum speed of 10. rpm it could produce over 1200 hp. Meanwhile, a new heat engine prime mover technology was quickly being developed: the steam turbine. The word turbine was coined in 1822 from the Latin root word turbo, for“that which spins.” When it was coined it was applied only to water wheels (as in hydraulic or water turbines). A turbine is a prime mover in which mechanical rotating shaft work is produced by a steady flow of fluid through the system. The output work is produced by changing the momentum of the working fluid as it passes through the system (the turbine). Reciprocating prime mover output work, on the other hand, is produced by changing the pressure of a fixed mass of working fluid within the system (the piston-cylinder apparatus). There are two basic types of turbine designs: impulse and reaction. Both the impulse and reaction turbine concepts date from antiquity. The paddle-type water wheels developed in Italy in about 70 BC (and used throughout the world, well into the 20th century AD) were of the impulse type (Figure 13.24, left). Also, in the first century AD, a Greek known today only as Heron (or, in Latin, Hero) of Alexandria (Egypt) devised a simple reaction steam turbine (called an aeolipile) in which a hollow copper sphere was made to rotate by steam jetting out of four nozzles mounted perpendicular to the axis of rotation (see Figure 13.24, right). No practical use was then made of this device. However, it was known to James Watt and his contemporaries because they experimented with steam-driven reaction turbines of the Heron type and still found them impractical due to the extremely high rotational speeds required to make them efficient enough to be competitive with existing reciprocating steam engine technology. In the impulse turbine, high-velocity fluid jets from stationary nozzles impinge on a set of blades on a rotor. The impulse force generated by the momentum change of the fluid passing through these blades causes the
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Modern Engineering Thermodynamics
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Modern Engineering Thermodynamics R
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Dedication WHAT IS AN ENGINEER AND
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Contents PREFACE . . . . . . . . .
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Contents ix 7.6 Heat Engines Runnin
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Contents xi 14.13 Air Standard Gas
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Preface TEXT OBJECTIVES This textbo
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Preface xv Step 5. Write down the b
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Acknowledgments I wish to acknowled
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Resources That Accompany This Book
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List of Symbols A a B COP CR c c p
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Prologue PARIS FRANCE, 10:35 AM, AU
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CHAPTER 1 The Beginning CONTENTS 1.
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1.2 Why Is Thermodynamics Important
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1.3 Getting Answers: A Basic Proble
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1.5 How Do We Measure Things? 7 bei
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1.6 Temperature Units 9 THE DEVELOP
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1.7 Classical Mechanical and Electr
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1.7 Classical Mechanical and Electr
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1.9 Modern Units Systems 15 where M
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1.10 Significant Figures 17 CRITICA
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1.10 Significant Figures 19 WHAT AB
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1.11 Potential and Kinetic Energies
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1.11 Potential and Kinetic Energies
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Summary 25 FIGURE 1.19 Case study 1
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Problems 27 Problems (* indicates p
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Problems 29 14. Determine the mass
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Problems 31 49. Using the CGS units
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CHAPTER 2 Thermodynamic Concepts CO
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2.3 Phases of Matter 35 System boun
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2.4 System States and Thermodynamic
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2.6 Thermodynamic Processes 39 WHAT
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2.7 Pressure and Temperature Scales
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2.9 The Continuum Hypothesis 43 Sur
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2.10 The Balance Concept 45 Solutio
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2.11 The Conservation Concept 47 or
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2.11 The Conservation Concept 49 Th
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Summary 51 change in the mass of X
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Problems 53 Problems (* indicates p
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Problems 55 and Death rate = α 2 +
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CHAPTER 3 Thermodynamic Properties
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3.3 Fun with Mathematics 59 CRITICA
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3.4 Some Exciting New Thermodynamic
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3.6 Enthalpy 63 WHO WAS AMALIE EMMY
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3.7 Phase Diagrams 65 WHO WAS EMMY
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Pressure Vapor 3.7 Phase Diagrams 6
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3.7 Phase Diagrams 69 WHAT IS A “
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3.7 Phase Diagrams 71 considerable
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3.8 Quality 73 10 5 300 C Critical
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3.8 Quality 75 Although Eq. (3.26)
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3.9 Thermodynamic Equations of Stat
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3.10 Thermodynamic Tables 85 Critic
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3.12 Thermodynamic Charts 87 vð100
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3.13 Thermodynamic Property Softwar
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Summary 91 and e = E/m = u + V2 2g
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Problems 93 c. For a saturated mixt
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Problems 95 specific enthalpy of sa
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Problems 97 Table 3.23 Problem 65 M
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CHAPTER 4 The First Law of Thermody
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4.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics
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4.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics
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4.4 Energy Transport Mechanisms 105
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4.5 Point and Path Functions 107 4.
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4.6 Mechanical Work Modes of Energy
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4.7 Nonmechanical Work Modes of Ene
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4.9 Work Efficiency 125 In the case
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4.12 Heat Modes of Energy Transport
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4.13 Heat Transfer Modes 129 Table
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4.14 A Thermodynamic Problem Solvin
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4.14 A Thermodynamic Problem Solvin
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4.15 How to Write a Thermodynamics
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4.15 How to Write a Thermodynamics
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Summary 139 The general open system
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Problems 141 11.* Determine the hea
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Problems 143 where K = 0.810 lbf. D
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Problems 145 Table 4.12 Problem 67
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CHAPTER 5 First Law Closed System A
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5.2 Sealed, Rigid Containers 149 In
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5.4 Power Plants 151 Step 7. Calcul
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5.5 Incompressible Liquids 153 The
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1Q 2 − 1 W 2 = mðu 2 − u 1 Þ
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5.8 Closed System Unsteady State Pr
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5.9 The Explosive Energy of Pressur
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Problems 161 Problems (* indicates
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Problems 163 31. A thermoelectric g
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Problems 165 where v, T, and r are
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CHAPTER 6 First Law Open System App
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6.2 Mass Flow Energy Transport 169
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6.3 Conservation of Energy and Cons
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6.4 Flow Stream Specific Kinetic an
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6.5 Nozzles and Diffusers 175 m (a)
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6.5 Nozzles and Diffusers 177 We ar
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6.6 Throttling Devices 179 These as
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6.6 Throttling Devices 181 For an i
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6.7 Throttling Calorimeter 183 The
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6.8 Heat Exchangers 185 Convective
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6.9 Shaft Work Machines 187 6.9 SHA
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6.9 Shaft Work Machines 189 1 Basem
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6.10 Open System Unsteady State Pro
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Problems 197 we have _m R / _m D =
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Problems 201 32.* A commercial slid
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Summary 203 59. Incompressible liqu
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CHAPTER 7 Second Law of Thermodynam
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7.3 The Second Law of Thermodynamic
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7.4 Carnot’s Heat Engine and the
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7.4 Carnot’s Heat Engine and the
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7.5 The Absolute Temperature Scale
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7.5 The Absolute Temperature Scale
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7.6 Heat Engines Running Backward 2
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7.7 Clausius’s Definition of Entr
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7.8 Numerical Values for Entropy 22
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7.10 Differential Entropy Balance 2
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7.11 Heat Transport of Entropy 229
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7.13 Entropy Production Mechanisms
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7.14 Heat Transfer Production of En
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7.15 Work Mode Production of Entrop
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7.15 Work Mode Production of Entrop
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7.16 Phase Change Entropy Productio
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Summary 241 ■ Indirect method inv
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Problems 243 amount of work W irr i
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Problems 245 a. If the heat pump is
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Problems 247 51. Develop a program
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CHAPTER 8 Second Law Closed System
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8.2 Systems Undergoing Reversible P
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8.3 Systems Undergoing Irreversible
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8.4 Diffusional Mixing 271 Exercise
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Summary 273 Note that this example
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Problems 275 15. A 20.0 ft 3 tank c
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Problems 277 46. a. Determine a for
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CHAPTER 9 Second Law Open System Ap
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9.4 Open System Entropy Balance Equ
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9.4 Open System Entropy Balance Equ
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9.5 Nozzles, Diffusers, and Throttl
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9.5 Nozzles, Diffusers, and Throttl
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9.6 Heat Exchangers 289 Exercises 1
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9.6 Heat Exchangers 291 (T H ) (T H
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9.7 Mixing 293 Now, _m air is given
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9.7 Mixing 295 Critical value of y,
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9.9 Unsteady State Processes in Ope
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Problems 309 Multiplying this equat
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Problems 311 entropy production rat
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Problems 313 heat is added to the b
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Problems 315 55.* Determine the max
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Problems 317 The cavitation process
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CHAPTER 10 Availability Analysis CO
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10.3 What Are Conservative Forces?
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10.6 Availability 323 WHAT IS A SYS
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10.6 Availability 325 and the total
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10.7 Closed System Availability Bal
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10.7 Closed System Availability Bal
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10.8 Flow Availability 331 EXAMPLE
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s − s 0 = c ln T T 0 10.8 Flow Av
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10.10 Modified Availability Rate Ba
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10.10 Modified Availability Rate Ba
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10.11 Energy Efficiency Based on th
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Summary 351 In this problem, we hav
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Summary 353 7. The general open sys
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Problems 355 12.5 Btu/hr·ft ·R. I
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Problems 357 flow rate of 15.0 lbm/
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Problems 359 85. Create a specific
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CHAPTER 11 More Thermodynamic Relat
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11.2 Two New Properties: Helmholtz
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11.2 Two New Properties: Helmholtz
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11.4 Maxwell Equations 367 11.4 MAX
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11.4 Maxwell Equations 369 then,
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11.5 The Clapeyron Equation 371 and
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11.6 Determining u, h, and s from p
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11.7 Constructing Tables and Charts
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11.8 Thermodynamic Charts 381 so th
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11.9 Gas Tables 383 where p r is th
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11.10 Compressibility Factor and Ge
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11.11 Is Steam Ever an Ideal Gas? 3
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Summary 399 equation, and a series
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Problems 401 20.* Estimate h fg for
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Problems 403 Design Problems The fo
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CHAPTER 12 Mixtures of Gases and Va
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12.2 Thermodynamic Properties of Ga
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12.3 Mixtures of Ideal Gases 413 Th
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12.3 Mixtures of Ideal Gases 415 Co
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12.4 Psychrometrics 417 Finally, th
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12.4 Psychrometrics 419 EXAMPLE 12.
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12.6 The Sling Psychrometer 421 The
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Page 464 and 465: Summary 439 Last, we combine Dalton
Page 466 and 467: Problems 441 Problems (* indicates
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Page 472 and 473: CHAPTER 13 Vapor and Gas Power Cycl
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Page 488 and 489: 13.5 Operating Efficiencies 463 b.
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Page 518 and 519: 13.15 Lenoir Cycle 493 Exercises 28
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13.23 Second Law Analysis of Vapor
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Summary 525 Fill port 160 mm End of
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Problems 527 7. The thermal efficie
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efficiency increase if the condense
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Problems 531 horsepower hour. Assum
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Problems 533 72. Determine the valu
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CHAPTER 14 Vapor and Gas Refrigerat
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14.3 Carnot Refrigeration Cycle 537
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14.4 In the Beginning There Was Ice
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14.4 In the Beginning There Was Ice
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14.5 Vapor-Compression Refrigeratio
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14.5 Vapor-Compression Refrigeratio
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14.6 Refrigerants 547 T 3 2s 2 p 3
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14.7 Refrigerant Numbers 549 14.7 R
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14.7 Refrigerant Numbers 551 R-110
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14.8 CFCs and the Ozone Layer 553 H
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14.9 Cascade and Multistage Vapor-C
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14.10 Absorption Refrigeration 561
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14.11 Commercial and Household Refr
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14.14 Reversed Brayton Cycle Refrig
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14.14 Reversed Brayton Cycle Refrig
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14.15 Reversed Stirling Cycle Refri
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14.16 Miscellaneous Refrigeration T
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14.16 Miscellaneous Refrigeration T
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14.18 Second Law Analysis of Refrig
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14.18 Second Law Analysis of Refrig
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2. The coefficient of performance o
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Problems 585 13.* A refrigeration u
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Problems 587 Loop B Station 1B Stat
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Problems 589 under these conditions
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CHAPTER 15 Chemical Thermodynamics
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15.2 Stoichiometric Equations 593 1
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15.2 Stoichiometric Equations 595 C
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15.3 Organic Fuels 597 ANSWERS SOME
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15.4 Fuel Modeling 599 Hydrocarbon
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15.4 Fuel Modeling 601 equation, si
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15.5 Standard Reference State 603 I
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15.6 Heat of Formation 605 and H 2
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15.7 Heat of Reaction 607 EXAMPLE 1
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15.7 Heat of Reaction 609 CRITICAL
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15.7 Heat of Reaction 611 Then, h P
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15.8 Adiabatic Flame Temperature 61
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15.9 Maximum Explosion Pressure 619
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15.10 Entropy Production in Chemica
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15.10 Entropy Production in Chemica
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15.11 Entropy of Formation and Gibb
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15.12 Chemical Equilibrium and Diss
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H 2 O !ð1 − yÞH 2 O + yðv H2
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15.14 The van’t Hoff Equation 635
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15.15 Fuel Cells 637 Anode Electrol
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15.15 Fuel Cells 639 The maximum po
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15.16 Chemical Availability 641 and
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ðn i /n fuel Þðc pi Þ E system
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Problems 645 where j = 4n + m kgmol
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Problems 647 c. The percent excess
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Problems 649 77. Determine the mola
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CHAPTER 16 Compressible Fluid Flow
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16.3 Isentropic Stagnation Properti
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16.4 The Mach Number 655 Note that
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16.4 The Mach Number 657 Table 16.1
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16.4 The Mach Number 659 Since for
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16.5 Converging-Diverging Flows 661
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16.5 Converging-Diverging Flows 663
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16.6 Choked Flow 665 T a a p a = co
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16.6 Choked Flow 667 Exercises 16.
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16.7 Reynolds Transport Theorem 669
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16.7 Reynolds Transport Theorem 671
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16.8 Linear Momentum Rate Balance 6
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16.9 Shock Waves 675 16.9 SHOCK WAV
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16.9 Shock Waves 677 and, for an id
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16.9 Shock Waves 679 6 5 4 S P /(m
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16.10 Nozzle and Diffuser Efficienc
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16.10 Nozzle and Diffuser Efficienc
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Summary 685 Since for a diffuser, M
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43. 0.800 lbm/s of air passes throu
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Problems 691 A plot of this functio
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CHAPTER 17 Thermodynamics of Biolog
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17.3 Thermodynamics of Biological C
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17.3 Thermodynamics of Biological C
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17.4 Energy Conversion Efficiency o
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17.4 Energy Conversion Efficiency o
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17.5 Metabolism 703 Table 17.3 Brea
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17.6 Thermodynamics of Nutrition an
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17.7 Limits to Biological Growth 71
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17.7 Limits to Biological Growth 71
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17.8 Locomotion Transport Number 71
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17.9 Thermodynamics of Aging and De
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17.9 Thermodynamics of Aging and De
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1/3 V most efficient = P o ρAC D S
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Problems 723 a. If the monster cons
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Problems 725 the officer asks Paul
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CHAPTER 18 Introduction to Statisti
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18.3 Kinetic Theory of Gases 729 3.
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U trans = 3 2 NkT (Continued ) 18.3
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18.4 Intermolecular Collisions 733
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18.5 Molecular Velocity Distributio
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18.5 Molecular Velocity Distributio
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18.6 Equipartition of Energy 739 We
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18.7 Introduction to Mathematical P
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18.8 Quantum Statistical Thermodyna
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18.9 Three Classical Quantum Statis
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18.11 Monatomic Maxwell-Boltzmann G
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18.12 Diatomic Maxwell-Boltzmann Ga
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18.12 Diatomic Maxwell-Boltzmann Ga
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18.13 Polyatomic Maxwell-Boltzmann
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Summary 759 In this chapter, we sum
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Problems 761 4. Find the temperatur
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CHAPTER 19 Introduction to Coupled
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19.3 Linear Phenomenological Equati
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19.4 Thermoelectric Coupling 767 Eq
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19.4 Thermoelectric Coupling 769 Th
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19.4 Thermoelectric Coupling 771 wh
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19.4 Thermoelectric Coupling 773 Th
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19.4 Thermoelectric Coupling 775 b.
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19.5 Thermomechanical Coupling 777
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water), it seems reasonable that li
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Problems 785 b. For a Knudson gas,
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Appendix A: Physical Constants and
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Appendix B: Greek and Latin Origins
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Appendix B 791 Table B.4 Plural End
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Index Page numbers followed by f in
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Index 795 E e (specific energy), 10
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Index 797 Isobaric coefficient of v
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Index 799 Ranque, Georges Joseph, 3
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Index 801 William III, King of Engl
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Modern Engineering Thermodynamics

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