Modern Engineering Thermodynamics

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13.20 Miller Cycle 509 13.19.1 <strong>Modern</strong> Atkinson Cycle In 1947, an American engineer named Ralph Miller patented an ingenious variation of the original Atkinson cycle. Rather than varying the actual length of the intake stroke, he realized that you could simply delay closing the intake valve past the end of the intake stroke. Then, as the piston traveled back up thecylinder,itsimply pushed air back out into the intake manifold. The compression began only when the intake valve was finally closed, and by altering when the intake valve closed, you could effectively change the compression ratio of the engine. Today, the term Atkinson cycle is used to describe Miller’s modified four-stroke Otto cycle, in which the intake valve is held open longer than normal to allow the piston to push some of the intake air back out of the cylinder. This reduces the compression ratio, but the subsequent expansion ratio is unchanged. This means that the compression ratio is smaller than the expansion ratio, meeting one of the essential features of the Atkinson cycle. The goal of the modern Atkinson cycle is to allow the pressure in the combustion chamber at the end of the power stroke to be as close to atmospheric pressure as possible. This maximizes the energy obtained from the combustion process. BecauseanAtkinsoncycleenginedoes not compress as much air as a similar size Otto cycle engine, it has a lower power density (power output per unit of engine mass). Four-stroke Atkinson cycle engines with the addition of a turbocharger or supercharger to make up for the loss of power density are known as Miller cycle engines. While an Otto cycle engine modified to run on the Atkinson cycle provides good fuel economy, it has a lower power output than a traditional Otto cycle engine. However, the power of the engine can be supplemented by an electric motor during times when more power is needed. This forms the basis of Atkinson cycle hybrid electric automobiles. Their electric motors can be used independently of, or in combination with, the Atkinson-cycle engine, to provide the most efficient means of producing the desired power. Toyota, Ford, Chevrolet, Lexus, and Mercedes have all produced hybrid electric automobiles using Atkinson cycle engines in recent years. For more information, see the animated Atkinson cycle engine at http://www.animatedengines.com/ atkinson.shtml. 13.20 MILLER CYCLE By closing the intake valve when the piston is at the bottom of its stroke, the Otto cycle engine begins compressing the air when the crankshaft has no leverage to push it up. A flywheel is often necessary to keep the engine running. In the 1940s, the American engineer R. H. Miller (1890–1967) realized that the crankshaft would have a much easier time pushing the piston up if it did not start the compression stroke until it had rotated part way up, so he used a longer lever arm (see Figure 13.52). When a Miller cycle engine has delayed (late) intake valve closure, it reduces the load on the piston as it rises to begin the compression stroke. This can produce significant horsepower with the addition of a turbocharger or supercharger, which compresses the air for the engine. A modern-day Atkinson cycle engine, on the other hand, delays its intake valve closure simply to cause the compression stroke to be shorter than the power stroke, thus realizing some of the same efficiency benefits of the original Atkinson cycle engine. A Miller cycle engine is very similar to a modern Atkinson cycle engine. However, there are two big differences: 1. A Miller cycle engine depends on a turbocharger or supercharger. 2. A Miller cycle engine has either an early or late intake valve closing during the compression stroke. When the intake valve closes late, the piston travels 20 to 30% of the way back up to the top of the cylinder before the intake valve finally closes, so that the engine compression starts at the pressure of the turbocharger or supercharger. The effect is increased efficiency, up to about 15%. This type of engine was first used in ships and stationary power-generating plants, but in the 1990s, it was adapted by Mazda for use in the Mazda Millennia. To be effective, the Miller cycle turbocharger or supercharger must be able to compress the air with less energy than with the engine’s pistons.Thisoccursonlyatlowpressures,so the Miller cycle uses the turbocharger or supercharger for the first part of the compression process and uses the piston for the remainder. Successful production versions of this cycle use variable valve timing to control the Miller cycle to maximize the engine’s efficiency.
510 CHAPTER 13: Vapor and Gas Power Cycles Intake valve remains open as piston begins moving up Intake valve is still open Intake valve finally closes and compression starts Compression completed followed by ignition and power stroke Clearance volume, V c Clearance volume, V c 1 1 Pressure, p 7s Intake valve closes at point 5 Pressure, p 7s Intake valve closes at point 5 2s 2s p atm 4 5 Displacement, V d 6 3 p atm 4 5 Displacement, V d 6 3 TDC BDC Volume, V d (a) Supercharged Miller cycle with late intake valve closing. TDC BDC Volume, V d (b) Supercharged Miller cycle with early intake valve closing. FIGURE 13.52 The ideal supercharged Miller cycle with early and late intake valve closing. The Miller cycle has one additional benefit: When the intake air is compressed by a supercharger then cooled by an intercooler, it has a higher density and a lower temperature than that obtained by a piston compression alone, further increasing the engine’s efficiency. EXAMPLE 13.16 A four-cylinder, 3.50 liter automobile engine operates on an ideal Miller cycle with early closing intake valves shown in Figure 13.52b. It has a compression ratio of 8.00 to 1 and an expansion ratio of 10.0 to 1. The turbocharger provides air at 200. kPa and 40.0ºC when the intake valve closes. The air–fuel ratio is 15.0 to 1 and the fuel has a heating value of 43,300 kJ/kg.UsingacoldASCwithk = 1.35, determine the temperature and pressure at all points of the cycle. Solution For each cylinder, the displacement volume is V d = 3.50/4 = 0.875 L = 8.75 × 10 –4 m 3 . The clearance volume, V c ,is calculated from the expansion ratio as ER = (V c + V d )/V c ,or V c = V d /ðER − 1Þ = ð8:75 × 10 −4 Þ/ð10:0 − 1Þ = 9:72 × 10 −5 m 3
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Modern Engineering Thermodynamics
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Modern Engineering Thermodynamics R
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Dedication WHAT IS AN ENGINEER AND
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Contents PREFACE . . . . . . . . .
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Contents ix 7.6 Heat Engines Runnin
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Contents xi 14.13 Air Standard Gas
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Preface TEXT OBJECTIVES This textbo
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Preface xv Step 5. Write down the b
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Acknowledgments I wish to acknowled
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Resources That Accompany This Book
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List of Symbols A a B COP CR c c p
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Prologue PARIS FRANCE, 10:35 AM, AU
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CHAPTER 1 The Beginning CONTENTS 1.
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1.2 Why Is Thermodynamics Important
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1.3 Getting Answers: A Basic Proble
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1.5 How Do We Measure Things? 7 bei
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1.6 Temperature Units 9 THE DEVELOP
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1.7 Classical Mechanical and Electr
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1.7 Classical Mechanical and Electr
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1.9 Modern Units Systems 15 where M
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1.10 Significant Figures 17 CRITICA
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1.10 Significant Figures 19 WHAT AB
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1.11 Potential and Kinetic Energies
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1.11 Potential and Kinetic Energies
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Summary 25 FIGURE 1.19 Case study 1
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Problems 27 Problems (* indicates p
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Problems 29 14. Determine the mass
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Problems 31 49. Using the CGS units
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CHAPTER 2 Thermodynamic Concepts CO
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2.3 Phases of Matter 35 System boun
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2.4 System States and Thermodynamic
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2.6 Thermodynamic Processes 39 WHAT
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2.7 Pressure and Temperature Scales
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2.9 The Continuum Hypothesis 43 Sur
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2.10 The Balance Concept 45 Solutio
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2.11 The Conservation Concept 47 or
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2.11 The Conservation Concept 49 Th
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Summary 51 change in the mass of X
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Problems 53 Problems (* indicates p
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Problems 55 and Death rate = α 2 +
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CHAPTER 3 Thermodynamic Properties
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3.3 Fun with Mathematics 59 CRITICA
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3.4 Some Exciting New Thermodynamic
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3.6 Enthalpy 63 WHO WAS AMALIE EMMY
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3.7 Phase Diagrams 65 WHO WAS EMMY
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Pressure Vapor 3.7 Phase Diagrams 6
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3.7 Phase Diagrams 69 WHAT IS A “
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3.7 Phase Diagrams 71 considerable
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3.8 Quality 73 10 5 300 C Critical
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3.8 Quality 75 Although Eq. (3.26)
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3.9 Thermodynamic Equations of Stat
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3.10 Thermodynamic Tables 85 Critic
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3.12 Thermodynamic Charts 87 vð100
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3.13 Thermodynamic Property Softwar
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Summary 91 and e = E/m = u + V2 2g
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Problems 93 c. For a saturated mixt
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Problems 95 specific enthalpy of sa
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Problems 97 Table 3.23 Problem 65 M
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CHAPTER 4 The First Law of Thermody
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4.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics
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4.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics
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4.4 Energy Transport Mechanisms 105
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4.5 Point and Path Functions 107 4.
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4.6 Mechanical Work Modes of Energy
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4.7 Nonmechanical Work Modes of Ene
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4.9 Work Efficiency 125 In the case
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4.12 Heat Modes of Energy Transport
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4.13 Heat Transfer Modes 129 Table
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4.14 A Thermodynamic Problem Solvin
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4.14 A Thermodynamic Problem Solvin
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4.15 How to Write a Thermodynamics
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4.15 How to Write a Thermodynamics
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Summary 139 The general open system
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Problems 141 11.* Determine the hea
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Problems 143 where K = 0.810 lbf. D
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Problems 145 Table 4.12 Problem 67
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CHAPTER 5 First Law Closed System A
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5.2 Sealed, Rigid Containers 149 In
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5.4 Power Plants 151 Step 7. Calcul
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5.5 Incompressible Liquids 153 The
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1Q 2 − 1 W 2 = mðu 2 − u 1 Þ
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5.8 Closed System Unsteady State Pr
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5.9 The Explosive Energy of Pressur
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Problems 161 Problems (* indicates
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Problems 163 31. A thermoelectric g
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Problems 165 where v, T, and r are
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CHAPTER 6 First Law Open System App
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6.2 Mass Flow Energy Transport 169
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6.3 Conservation of Energy and Cons
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6.4 Flow Stream Specific Kinetic an
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6.5 Nozzles and Diffusers 175 m (a)
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6.5 Nozzles and Diffusers 177 We ar
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6.6 Throttling Devices 179 These as
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6.6 Throttling Devices 181 For an i
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6.7 Throttling Calorimeter 183 The
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6.8 Heat Exchangers 185 Convective
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6.9 Shaft Work Machines 187 6.9 SHA
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6.9 Shaft Work Machines 189 1 Basem
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6.10 Open System Unsteady State Pro
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Problems 197 we have _m R / _m D =
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Problems 201 32.* A commercial slid
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Summary 203 59. Incompressible liqu
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CHAPTER 7 Second Law of Thermodynam
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7.3 The Second Law of Thermodynamic
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7.4 Carnot’s Heat Engine and the
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7.4 Carnot’s Heat Engine and the
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7.5 The Absolute Temperature Scale
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7.5 The Absolute Temperature Scale
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7.6 Heat Engines Running Backward 2
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7.7 Clausius’s Definition of Entr
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7.8 Numerical Values for Entropy 22
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7.10 Differential Entropy Balance 2
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7.11 Heat Transport of Entropy 229
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7.13 Entropy Production Mechanisms
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7.14 Heat Transfer Production of En
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7.15 Work Mode Production of Entrop
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7.15 Work Mode Production of Entrop
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7.16 Phase Change Entropy Productio
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Summary 241 ■ Indirect method inv
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Problems 243 amount of work W irr i
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Problems 245 a. If the heat pump is
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Problems 247 51. Develop a program
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CHAPTER 8 Second Law Closed System
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8.2 Systems Undergoing Reversible P
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8.3 Systems Undergoing Irreversible
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8.4 Diffusional Mixing 271 Exercise
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Summary 273 Note that this example
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Problems 275 15. A 20.0 ft 3 tank c
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Problems 277 46. a. Determine a for
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CHAPTER 9 Second Law Open System Ap
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9.4 Open System Entropy Balance Equ
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9.4 Open System Entropy Balance Equ
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9.5 Nozzles, Diffusers, and Throttl
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9.5 Nozzles, Diffusers, and Throttl
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9.6 Heat Exchangers 289 Exercises 1
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9.6 Heat Exchangers 291 (T H ) (T H
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9.7 Mixing 293 Now, _m air is given
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9.7 Mixing 295 Critical value of y,
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9.9 Unsteady State Processes in Ope
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Problems 309 Multiplying this equat
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Problems 311 entropy production rat
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Problems 313 heat is added to the b
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Problems 315 55.* Determine the max
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Problems 317 The cavitation process
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CHAPTER 10 Availability Analysis CO
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10.3 What Are Conservative Forces?
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10.6 Availability 323 WHAT IS A SYS
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10.6 Availability 325 and the total
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10.7 Closed System Availability Bal
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10.7 Closed System Availability Bal
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10.8 Flow Availability 331 EXAMPLE
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s − s 0 = c ln T T 0 10.8 Flow Av
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10.10 Modified Availability Rate Ba
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10.10 Modified Availability Rate Ba
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10.11 Energy Efficiency Based on th
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Summary 351 In this problem, we hav
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Summary 353 7. The general open sys
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Problems 355 12.5 Btu/hr·ft ·R. I
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Problems 357 flow rate of 15.0 lbm/
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Problems 359 85. Create a specific
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CHAPTER 11 More Thermodynamic Relat
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11.2 Two New Properties: Helmholtz
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11.2 Two New Properties: Helmholtz
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11.4 Maxwell Equations 367 11.4 MAX
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11.4 Maxwell Equations 369 then,
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11.5 The Clapeyron Equation 371 and
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11.6 Determining u, h, and s from p
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11.7 Constructing Tables and Charts
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11.8 Thermodynamic Charts 381 so th
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11.9 Gas Tables 383 where p r is th
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11.10 Compressibility Factor and Ge
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11.11 Is Steam Ever an Ideal Gas? 3
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Summary 399 equation, and a series
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Problems 401 20.* Estimate h fg for
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Problems 403 Design Problems The fo
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CHAPTER 12 Mixtures of Gases and Va
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12.2 Thermodynamic Properties of Ga
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12.3 Mixtures of Ideal Gases 413 Th
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12.3 Mixtures of Ideal Gases 415 Co
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12.4 Psychrometrics 417 Finally, th
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12.4 Psychrometrics 419 EXAMPLE 12.
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12.6 The Sling Psychrometer 421 The
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12.6 The Sling Psychrometer 423 p w
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12.7 Air Conditioning 425 WHAT ENVI
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12.8 Psychrometric Enthalpies 427 E
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12.8 Psychrometric Enthalpies 429 o
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12.9 Mixtures of Real Gases 431 Whe
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12.9 Mixtures of Real Gases 433 and
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12.9 Mixtures of Real Gases 435 The
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12.9 Mixtures of Real Gases 437 Sol
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Summary 439 Last, we combine Dalton
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Problems 443 exhaust gas is an idea
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Problems 445 57.* Cooling towers ar
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CHAPTER 13 Vapor and Gas Power Cycl
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13.2 Part I. Engines and Vapor Powe
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13.4 Rankine Cycle 457 A B Reversib
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Page 502 and 503: 13.9 Rankine Cycle with Reheat 477
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Page 514 and 515: 13.13 Stirling Cycle 489 Q H 4 1 4
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Page 518 and 519: 13.15 Lenoir Cycle 493 Exercises 28
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Page 556 and 557: Problems 531 horsepower hour. Assum
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Page 564 and 565: 14.4 In the Beginning There Was Ice
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Page 568 and 569: 14.5 Vapor-Compression Refrigeratio
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Page 572 and 573: 14.6 Refrigerants 547 T 3 2s 2 p 3
Page 574 and 575: 14.7 Refrigerant Numbers 549 14.7 R
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14.9 Cascade and Multistage Vapor-C
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14.10 Absorption Refrigeration 561
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14.11 Commercial and Household Refr
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14.14 Reversed Brayton Cycle Refrig
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14.14 Reversed Brayton Cycle Refrig
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14.15 Reversed Stirling Cycle Refri
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14.16 Miscellaneous Refrigeration T
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14.16 Miscellaneous Refrigeration T
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14.18 Second Law Analysis of Refrig
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14.18 Second Law Analysis of Refrig
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2. The coefficient of performance o
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Problems 585 13.* A refrigeration u
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Problems 587 Loop B Station 1B Stat
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Problems 589 under these conditions
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CHAPTER 15 Chemical Thermodynamics
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15.2 Stoichiometric Equations 593 1
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15.2 Stoichiometric Equations 595 C
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15.3 Organic Fuels 597 ANSWERS SOME
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15.4 Fuel Modeling 599 Hydrocarbon
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15.4 Fuel Modeling 601 equation, si
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15.5 Standard Reference State 603 I
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15.6 Heat of Formation 605 and H 2
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15.7 Heat of Reaction 607 EXAMPLE 1
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15.7 Heat of Reaction 609 CRITICAL
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15.7 Heat of Reaction 611 Then, h P
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15.8 Adiabatic Flame Temperature 61
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15.9 Maximum Explosion Pressure 619
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15.10 Entropy Production in Chemica
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15.10 Entropy Production in Chemica
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15.11 Entropy of Formation and Gibb
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15.12 Chemical Equilibrium and Diss
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H 2 O !ð1 − yÞH 2 O + yðv H2
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15.14 The van’t Hoff Equation 635
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15.15 Fuel Cells 637 Anode Electrol
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15.15 Fuel Cells 639 The maximum po
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15.16 Chemical Availability 641 and
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ðn i /n fuel Þðc pi Þ E system
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Problems 645 where j = 4n + m kgmol
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Problems 647 c. The percent excess
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Problems 649 77. Determine the mola
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CHAPTER 16 Compressible Fluid Flow
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16.3 Isentropic Stagnation Properti
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16.4 The Mach Number 655 Note that
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16.4 The Mach Number 657 Table 16.1
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16.4 The Mach Number 659 Since for
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16.5 Converging-Diverging Flows 661
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16.5 Converging-Diverging Flows 663
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16.6 Choked Flow 665 T a a p a = co
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16.6 Choked Flow 667 Exercises 16.
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16.7 Reynolds Transport Theorem 669
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16.7 Reynolds Transport Theorem 671
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16.8 Linear Momentum Rate Balance 6
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16.9 Shock Waves 675 16.9 SHOCK WAV
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16.9 Shock Waves 677 and, for an id
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16.9 Shock Waves 679 6 5 4 S P /(m
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16.10 Nozzle and Diffuser Efficienc
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16.10 Nozzle and Diffuser Efficienc
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Summary 685 Since for a diffuser, M
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43. 0.800 lbm/s of air passes throu
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Problems 691 A plot of this functio
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CHAPTER 17 Thermodynamics of Biolog
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17.3 Thermodynamics of Biological C
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17.3 Thermodynamics of Biological C
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17.4 Energy Conversion Efficiency o
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17.4 Energy Conversion Efficiency o
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17.5 Metabolism 703 Table 17.3 Brea
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17.6 Thermodynamics of Nutrition an
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17.7 Limits to Biological Growth 71
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17.7 Limits to Biological Growth 71
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17.8 Locomotion Transport Number 71
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17.9 Thermodynamics of Aging and De
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17.9 Thermodynamics of Aging and De
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1/3 V most efficient = P o ρAC D S
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Problems 723 a. If the monster cons
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Problems 725 the officer asks Paul
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CHAPTER 18 Introduction to Statisti
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18.3 Kinetic Theory of Gases 729 3.
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U trans = 3 2 NkT (Continued ) 18.3
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18.4 Intermolecular Collisions 733
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18.5 Molecular Velocity Distributio
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18.5 Molecular Velocity Distributio
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18.6 Equipartition of Energy 739 We
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18.7 Introduction to Mathematical P
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18.8 Quantum Statistical Thermodyna
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18.9 Three Classical Quantum Statis
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18.11 Monatomic Maxwell-Boltzmann G
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18.12 Diatomic Maxwell-Boltzmann Ga
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18.12 Diatomic Maxwell-Boltzmann Ga
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18.13 Polyatomic Maxwell-Boltzmann
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Summary 759 In this chapter, we sum
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Problems 761 4. Find the temperatur
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CHAPTER 19 Introduction to Coupled
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19.3 Linear Phenomenological Equati
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19.4 Thermoelectric Coupling 767 Eq
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19.4 Thermoelectric Coupling 769 Th
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19.4 Thermoelectric Coupling 771 wh
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19.4 Thermoelectric Coupling 773 Th
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19.4 Thermoelectric Coupling 775 b.
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19.5 Thermomechanical Coupling 777
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water), it seems reasonable that li
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Problems 785 b. For a Knudson gas,
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Appendix A: Physical Constants and
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Appendix B: Greek and Latin Origins
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Appendix B 791 Table B.4 Plural End
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Index Page numbers followed by f in
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Index 795 E e (specific energy), 10
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Index 797 Isobaric coefficient of v
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Index 799 Ranque, Georges Joseph, 3
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Index 801 William III, King of Engl
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Modern Engineering Thermodynamics

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