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These incipient foreign policy principles were born of uncertainty. One aspect ofthis uncertainty in the closing stages of the apartheid era derived from the partylevel. Evans interprets the ANC’s failure to come to terms with balancing itsloyalties to the anti-colonial struggle and choosing its own economic path on onehand, and to advancing development domestically, along widely accepted standards(global capitalism) internationally, to the failure of the organisation to re-calibrate itsloyalties and theoretical bearings after the fall of Communism in 1989. 211 (This willbe discussed in greater detail in Chapter 5).The policymaking process since the end of Apartheid may usefully be divided intotwo distinct phases: a phase of transition and a phase of consolidation. 212 Duringthe transition, which lasted roughly from the end of the 1980s with the firstovertures by South African government intelligence personnel to the ANC in exile,neither side could claim an outright victory. The consequent political settlement,referred to variously by analysts as a ‘pacted transition’ 213 and an ‘elite transition’ 214 ,entailed a number of far-reaching compromises by the African National Congress,most notably, and crucially, in the economic sphere. Nonetheless, transformation –of policymaking instruments and outcomes – was a priority for the incomingGovernment of National Unity, of which the ANC was a majority member.According to van Nieuwkerk, a number of immediate policy changes wereintroduced. Importantly, the focus of government policy across all sectors became,at least in theory, the needs of the black majority. 215 Consolidation, meanwhile,Foreign Affairs”, 31 August 1999. Accessed online at:http://www.pmg.org.za/minutes/19990830-departments-mineral-energy-and-foreignaffairs-briefingon 7 April, 2010.211 Evans, “South Africa in Remission”, 255.212 Comprehensive overviews are provided in Chris Alden and Garth le Pere, “SouthAfrica’s Post-Apartheid Foreign Policy – From Reconciliation to Revival?”, AdelphiPaper, 43, Issue 362, (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 2003); andAnthoni Van Nieuwkerk, “South Africa’s Post-Apartheid Foreign Policy Decision-Makingon African Crises”, unpublished PhD Thesis (Johannesburg: University of theWitwatersrand, 2006).213 Steven Friedman, “South Africa’s pacted transition” in Comparing Brazil and SouthAfrica: Two Transitional States in Political and Economic Perspective, eds., S. Friedmanand R de Villiers (Centre for Policy Studies, Foundation for Global Dialogue and Institutode Estudos Economicos) cited in Van Nieuwkerk, 91.214 Patrick Bond, Elite Transition: From Apartheid to Neoliberalism in South Africa(London: Pluto Press, 2000), cited in van Nieuwkerk, 91.215 Van Nieuwkerk, “South Africa and African Crises”, 101-102.110
entailed the restructuring of certain government processes, in a process called‘integrated governance’, and in foreign policy, the development of a more visionaryand settled international outlook.Yet there is a persistent sense, in numerous analyses of South African foreignpolicy, that an expansive, activist foreign policy was expected of South Africa. Inspite of its state of internal fluidity and transformation, South Africa’soverwhelming dominance of Southern Africa – the cessation of military campaignsnotwithstanding – created expectations of its responsibilities in the region andbeyond. 216 But why did the state opt instead for a middle-range foreign policy,heightening its diplomatic presence, but remaining muted in its projection ofmaterial power?4.1.1 Institutional Arrangements for Foreign Policymaking: Consolidationunder MbekiThe role of the LegislatureIn South Africa, legislative power is held by a parliament composed of twochambers, the National Assembly and the National Council of Provinces (NCOP).The National Assembly represents the people, while the NCOP represents theprovinces in a decentralised (yet unitary) system of government. 217 The NationalAssembly can pass legislation on any matter. Such legislation must then be ratifiedby the upper house. According to the Constitution, when exercising its legislativeauthority, Parliament “is bound only by the Constitution, and must act inaccordance with, and within the limits of, the Constitution”. 218 The NationalAssembly is comprised of 350-400 members who serve for 5-year terms, on thebasis of proportional representation. It maintains the power to consider, pass,amend or reject legislation, as well as the duty to retain oversight of the executive,and any other organ of state. 219 The NCOP is comprised of a single delegation from216 Scott Kraft, “Africa’s Former Pariah Is Now a Potent Future Force”, Los AngelesTimes, April 21, 1994. Accessed online on 29 June, 2011.217 Constitution of South Africa. 1996. ‘Schedule 4: Functional areas of concurrentnational and provincial legislative competence’, accessed online at:http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96conssec4.htm on 13 August,2010. South Africa is a unitary state.218 Ibid., Section 44(4).219 Ibid., Section 55.111
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To my parents, Christopher and Vali
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSNothing that preced
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LIST OF SIGNIFICANT ACRONYMS AND AB
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PTRDPSACPSADCSPLMSWAPOUNCTADUNMIHUN
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Chapter 7 The New Internationalists
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Chapter 1: Introduction1.1. Context
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overwhelmingly, yet not completely,
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Hence, shifts in the international
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antipathy of the IR literature to a
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frowned upon by developed and devel
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identify cases - and these were num
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politics and political lobbying. Th
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This is followed by the presentatio
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emerging powers Brazil, Russia, Ind
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decades. More a collection of works
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exercised more frequently, where th
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The role of left-leaning political
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outcomes? Which instruments have th
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percent. 56 In South Africa, Blacks
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Brazil, because in engaging in this
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which domestic institutional arrang
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Chapter 2: Internationalism in the
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potentially providing indications o
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and most important, that these two
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According to Goldmann, internationa
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Page 90 and 91: Systemic Constraints :AnarchyRelati
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Page 136 and 137: 4.2.3. International OutlookBrazil
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1994, 370 placing tangible limits o
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The organisation’s main shortcomi
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Much of Mandela’s tenure as Presi
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with more wealthy donors in the Glo
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complicates the task of separating
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Thabo Mbeki was frequently lampoone
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the social-democratic Reconstructio
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At the helm of DFA were two individ
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policy. One, which is less signific
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Globally, the United States and its
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South Africa under Mbeki had decide
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his support for Mugabe against the
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on Participation in International P
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(FOCAC) Conference in November. The
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Mbeki’s last full year in office,
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190
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international norms and regimes. 45
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of Brazil. In this discussion, Braz
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This period came to an end during t
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This dilemma - the choice between c
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on so-called ‘cultural diplomacy
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exchange rate movements and the cap
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and conflict resolution under the W
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Brazil’s military capabilities ar
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shifts in its approach to Brazil’
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een required of PT as a party of th
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A number of scholars are agreed tha
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leader…espousing a populist polit
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foreign policy document, it was the
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election campaign, a rarity for a f
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alumni, have been the subject of mu
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6.5. Criticism from other political
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- the 2001 attacks on the United St
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Middle East, but they also appeared
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limitations on its capacities for w
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São Tomé and Principe, Ethiopia a
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emphasised the principle of non-int
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US$180 bn, compared to US$85 bn the
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underscored by increased military s
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country enjoyed, and by the apparen
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Chapter 7: The New Internationalist
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from their repeatedly-stated commit
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On this occasion the force was able
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Instead, France and the US were mor
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and groups in their efforts to prom
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to the leader of the Parliamentary
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Aristide’s birthday, our people w
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7.4. Brazil’s strategy on Haiti:
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taken by two branches of the armed
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esolutions). 664 A primary example
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However, Haiti was not merely a hum
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to share its experiences of securin
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giving near-automatic assent to the
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• Universalism, and• Internatio
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A prominent official discourse on t
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so this was an issue area that was
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Part III: Thematic Discussion and C
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Chapter 8: Neoclassical Realism, In
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policymaking elites of these states
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commitments have a substantial impa
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The resulting statement that the fi
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In South Africa, the intervening va
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liberation movement, has assumed mo
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South Africa expanded its engagemen
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more pragmatic, without losing sigh
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at the unit-level, where the state
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falls short of capturing the full g
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a political or material nature, in
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It is also plausible to expect that
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national capabilities and therewith
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300
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Appendix 1: Brazilian Presidents si
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1910: Formation of the Union of Sou
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2004: ANC wins landslide election v
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1960: Jânio Quadro is elected pres
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Renan Calheiros, speaker of the Sen
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31 May 2004: Jean-Bertrand Aristide
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SeptemberOctoberNovemberDecemberMap
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OctoberNovemberDecember11: South Af
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JuneJuly23: South Africa participat
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OctoberNovemberreadiness for South
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FebruaryMarchSouth Africa establish
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June 2006, legislative andmunicipal
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FebruaryKuwaiti deputy premier visi
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Appendix 6: Selected Brazilian Inte
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agreement proposed by theUSA to gra
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in Iran.2004JanuaryLula visits Indi
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Brazil is successful in its cottond
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Brazil opens Consulates-General in
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and MINUSTAH authorities.OctoberNov
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Maythe installation ofEMPBRAPA’s
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Honduras and Nicaragua withthe Inte
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NovemberLula requests Minister Amor
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AprilMayJuneJulyand the Palestinian
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REFERENCESList of InterviewsBrazilL
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______, Sally Morphet and Marco Ant
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______. 2004. “Aristide arrives i
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______, Jacqueline Anne. 2003. “C
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Connors, Michael E. Connors. 2005.
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contributors). 1986. How Foreign Po
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Glenn, John. 2009. “Realism versu
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Hirst, Monica. 2009. “South Ameri
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Jönsson, Christer. 2002. “Chapte
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Lipton, Merle. 2009. “Understandi
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______. 2004. “State of the Natio
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International Studies Convention, L
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Pfister, Roger. 2003. “Gateway to
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Samuels, David. 2004. “From Socia
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______. 2003. “Culture(s) of the
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UOL Notícias. 2009. “Celso Amori
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World Bank. 2009. Gross Domestic Pr
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