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each province, consisting of 10 delegates. Proportional representation ensures that anumber of parties may compete for seats in the legislature, and results in a fracturedand populous party-system, in contrast to first-past-the-post electoral systems. InSouth Africa, this situation is over-compensated for by the dominance of the rulingAfrican National Congress, which, by virtue of its overwhelming election victoriesand the weakness of the opposition, dominates Parliament. 220The nature of South Africa’s multiparty transition from apartheid rule meant that amultiplicity of voices, especially those of the ANC and its alliance partners, weighedin on the initial foreign policy-making process. After 1994, the Government ofNational Unity went as far as initiating a consultation process engaging civil society“through a series of public meetings and the circulation of a discussiondocument”. 221 These inputs did not contribute to the publication of a White Paperon Foreign Policy as expected, but they helped to highlight new potential foreignpolicy directions (e.g. the human security paradigm), and also to legitimise the newforeign policymaking institutions. 222In practice, parliament retains a largely reactive role in foreign policy, although theextent to which this is true depends on the issue. 223 Parliament’s role was amplifiedsomewhat in the past by the oversight function of the Parliamentary Committee onForeign Affairs. As widely noted, for a brief period in the immediate aftermath ofthe first all-race elections, this committee under chair and ANC member RaymondSuttner was active in questioning the premises of South African foreign policy, aswell as the pace of transformation of the Department of Foreign Affairs. For onething, the Committee took a dim view of the small budget set aside for the220 There is some controversy over the ascription of the label ‘dominant party’ to theANC. Those in favour express misgivings over levels of internal democracy within theANC, the appointment of party members to key state positions and its broader moves tostifle debate in society and the media. Those against the label, meanwhile, consider ithostile and racist, asserting the ANC’s popularity as the reason for its overwhelmingvictories in elections. See Roger Southall, “The ‘Dominant Party Debate’ in SouthAfrica”, afrika spectrum, 40, No.1 (2005).221 Alden and le Pere, “South Africa’s Post-Apartheid Foreign Policy”, 13.222 Ibid., 13.223 A distinction should be drawn at this point between parliament’s role in foreign policymaking, and its own international activities. Examples of the latter include discussionswith regional and international counterparts. These relations and activities are beyondthe scope of this thesis, and will therefore not be covered.112
establishment of diplomatic missions in Africa early on. 224 The predominant patternsince then, however, has been one of limited engagement. One parliamentarian hasattributed this to “parliament’s uncertainty about its role in the foreign policyprocess”; and, also to executive domination of foreign policy. 225 Another possiblereason is the under-resourcing of parliamentarians’ capacity to develop thenecessary expertise to play a more active role in foreign policy initiation. Theproportional representation electoral system is another important political limitationon parliamentarians’ involvement on foreign policy issues. Because ANC MPs (whoare in the majority and hence could prove most effective) are elected on a party list,they have little incentive to challenge government positions, or to champion specificissues, 226 and so exhibit greater loyalty to the Party leadership.A further crucial dimension of Parliament’s activity (or more aptly, inactivity) onforeign policy is its inability to introduce money bills. 227 This right is reserved forthe executive, in the person of the Minister of Finance. Therefore, any foreignpolicy initiatives requiring large disbursements of funds, including those not relatedto any international crisis, may – if not introduced by the Department of ForeignAffairs - only be introduced by the Finance Minister, who is already a privilegedassociate of the President by virtue of his presidential appointment, furtherentrenching executive control of foreign policy. Parliament’s primary point ofinfluence of foreign policy budgetary questions is the Department of ForeignAffairs Budget Vote, during which allocations of funds for the conduct of foreignrelations are made. In accordance with South Africa’s growing continental andinternational responsibilities from 2001 onward, this amount grew incrementallyeach year, by an unusual 27% in 2001/2, 13,32% in 2002/3, and a sizable 35% toreach R5,6 billion (US$716m at 2011 rates) in Mbeki’s last year as president, 2008. 228224 Roger Southall, “Regional security: The “new security” in southern Africa”, SouthernAfrica Report, 10, No. 5, July 1995. Accessed online at:http://www.africafiles.org/article.asp?ID=3936 on 14 August, 2010.225 A.K. Ahmed, “The role of parliament in South Africa’s foreign policy developmentprocess: lessons from the United States’ Congress”, South African Journal ofInternational Affairs,16, No.3 (2009): 291-292.226 Ibid., 303.227 Ibid., 296.228 Department of Foreign Affairs, Annual Reports, 2001/2, 2002/3, and 2008/9. Thisamounted to only a fraction (0,8%) of the three-year budget for that period, however.See National Treasury, 2008. “A People’s Guide to the Budget”, accessed online at:http://www.treasury.gov.za/documents/national%20budget/2008/guides/Budget%20Peoples%20guide%20eng%202008.pdf on 5 September, 2011.113
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To my parents, Christopher and Vali
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSNothing that preced
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LIST OF SIGNIFICANT ACRONYMS AND AB
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PTRDPSACPSADCSPLMSWAPOUNCTADUNMIHUN
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Chapter 7 The New Internationalists
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Chapter 1: Introduction1.1. Context
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overwhelmingly, yet not completely,
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Hence, shifts in the international
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antipathy of the IR literature to a
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frowned upon by developed and devel
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identify cases - and these were num
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politics and political lobbying. Th
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This is followed by the presentatio
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emerging powers Brazil, Russia, Ind
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decades. More a collection of works
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exercised more frequently, where th
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The role of left-leaning political
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outcomes? Which instruments have th
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percent. 56 In South Africa, Blacks
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Brazil, because in engaging in this
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which domestic institutional arrang
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Chapter 2: Internationalism in the
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potentially providing indications o
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and most important, that these two
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According to Goldmann, internationa
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granted that states will always hav
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Page 63 and 64: 2.2.3 Post-Cold WarThe immediate af
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Page 82 and 83: adjust to shifts in their internati
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Page 86 and 87: ethics may underpin the same foreig
Page 88 and 89: As noted by Taliaferro, however, ne
Page 90 and 91: Systemic Constraints :AnarchyRelati
Page 92 and 93: Neorealism’s emphasis on the syst
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Page 96 and 97: individuals - located at the “int
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Page 100 and 101: nature of interim or transitional g
Page 102 and 103: The neoclassical realist framework
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Page 106 and 107: practicable and analytically releva
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Page 110 and 111: These incipient foreign policy prin
Page 114 and 115: While this figure is small in globa
Page 116 and 117: mercantilist’, 238 or ‘revoluti
Page 118 and 119: The party’s commitment to the pro
Page 120 and 121: 2. Strengthening of South-South Co-
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Page 124 and 125: slavery. Even Brazil’s participat
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Page 128 and 129: The Presidency makes foreign policy
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Page 132 and 133: members were negotiated. 296 Recent
Page 134 and 135: President Lula’s second and last
Page 136 and 137: 4.2.3. International OutlookBrazil
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Page 140 and 141: welfare measures. The party’s rel
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Page 144 and 145: missions and disaster relief. Yet,
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Page 148 and 149: electoral system. The following sec
Page 150 and 151: identity changed as the challenges
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The organisation’s main shortcomi
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Much of Mandela’s tenure as Presi
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with more wealthy donors in the Glo
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complicates the task of separating
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Thabo Mbeki was frequently lampoone
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the social-democratic Reconstructio
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At the helm of DFA were two individ
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policy. One, which is less signific
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Globally, the United States and its
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South Africa under Mbeki had decide
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his support for Mugabe against the
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on Participation in International P
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(FOCAC) Conference in November. The
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Mbeki’s last full year in office,
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190
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international norms and regimes. 45
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of Brazil. In this discussion, Braz
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This period came to an end during t
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This dilemma - the choice between c
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on so-called ‘cultural diplomacy
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exchange rate movements and the cap
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and conflict resolution under the W
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Brazil’s military capabilities ar
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shifts in its approach to Brazil’
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een required of PT as a party of th
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A number of scholars are agreed tha
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leader…espousing a populist polit
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foreign policy document, it was the
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election campaign, a rarity for a f
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alumni, have been the subject of mu
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6.5. Criticism from other political
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- the 2001 attacks on the United St
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Middle East, but they also appeared
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limitations on its capacities for w
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São Tomé and Principe, Ethiopia a
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emphasised the principle of non-int
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US$180 bn, compared to US$85 bn the
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underscored by increased military s
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country enjoyed, and by the apparen
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Chapter 7: The New Internationalist
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from their repeatedly-stated commit
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On this occasion the force was able
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Instead, France and the US were mor
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and groups in their efforts to prom
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to the leader of the Parliamentary
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Aristide’s birthday, our people w
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7.4. Brazil’s strategy on Haiti:
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taken by two branches of the armed
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esolutions). 664 A primary example
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However, Haiti was not merely a hum
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to share its experiences of securin
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giving near-automatic assent to the
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• Universalism, and• Internatio
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A prominent official discourse on t
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so this was an issue area that was
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Part III: Thematic Discussion and C
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Chapter 8: Neoclassical Realism, In
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policymaking elites of these states
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commitments have a substantial impa
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The resulting statement that the fi
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In South Africa, the intervening va
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liberation movement, has assumed mo
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South Africa expanded its engagemen
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more pragmatic, without losing sigh
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at the unit-level, where the state
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falls short of capturing the full g
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a political or material nature, in
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It is also plausible to expect that
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national capabilities and therewith
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300
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Appendix 1: Brazilian Presidents si
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1910: Formation of the Union of Sou
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2004: ANC wins landslide election v
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1960: Jânio Quadro is elected pres
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Renan Calheiros, speaker of the Sen
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31 May 2004: Jean-Bertrand Aristide
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SeptemberOctoberNovemberDecemberMap
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OctoberNovemberDecember11: South Af
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JuneJuly23: South Africa participat
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OctoberNovemberreadiness for South
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FebruaryMarchSouth Africa establish
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June 2006, legislative andmunicipal
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FebruaryKuwaiti deputy premier visi
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Appendix 6: Selected Brazilian Inte
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agreement proposed by theUSA to gra
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in Iran.2004JanuaryLula visits Indi
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Brazil is successful in its cottond
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Brazil opens Consulates-General in
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and MINUSTAH authorities.OctoberNov
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Maythe installation ofEMPBRAPA’s
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Honduras and Nicaragua withthe Inte
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NovemberLula requests Minister Amor
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AprilMayJuneJulyand the Palestinian
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REFERENCESList of InterviewsBrazilL
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______, Sally Morphet and Marco Ant
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______. 2004. “Aristide arrives i
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______, Jacqueline Anne. 2003. “C
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Connors, Michael E. Connors. 2005.
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contributors). 1986. How Foreign Po
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Glenn, John. 2009. “Realism versu
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Hirst, Monica. 2009. “South Ameri
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Jönsson, Christer. 2002. “Chapte
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Lipton, Merle. 2009. “Understandi
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______. 2004. “State of the Natio
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International Studies Convention, L
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Pfister, Roger. 2003. “Gateway to
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Samuels, David. 2004. “From Socia
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______. 2003. “Culture(s) of the
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UOL Notícias. 2009. “Celso Amori
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World Bank. 2009. Gross Domestic Pr
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