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shifts in its approach to Brazil’s international relations. This evolution is the focusof the following section.6.3. PT’s foreign policy evolution and its critics: institutional freedom andlegitimating power‘Rupture is Necessary’? PT and the limits to change in Brazilian ForeignPolicyIn January 2003, Lula and the Workers’ Party entered government in a two-foldstraitjacket, imposed by IMF austerity on one hand, and its own domestic deals withcentrist parties in order to be able to pass legislation in Congress, on the other. Asan internal party matter, foreign policy had come a long way from the party’s cleardistaste for ‘imperialism’ in its founding document from 1980, and its later promisesto place a moratorium on foreign debt payments if it came to power. While foreignpolicy was not one of the party’s key platforms in its four presidential campaigns(three of them unsuccessful), it was one of the fronts on which PT had to fend offattacks on its presidential ambitions, especially in the 2002 campaign. These attacks,admittedly, were sparked in response to calls by the far left in PT for Brazil toterminate its arrangements with the IMF and renounce the repayment of Brazil’sforeign debt 509 .The domestic context, especially Brazil’s political system, militates against rapid andfar-reaching policy changes in any public sphere. This is in part a vestige of thetransition to democracy, which allowed much of the old elite to retain positions ofpower and prestige in national, state and local government. 510 Furthermore, nationaland state politics sometimes appear to operate on different axes, especially givenwide income and education-level disparities in Brazil. Institutional freedom in termsof formulating and implementing foreign policy is thus limited for any governingparty, owing to the Congressional system, and the primacy of Itamaraty in foreignpolicy implementation. The state, with PT in government, also laboured under alegitimacy deficit in foreign policy, as notable sections of the foreign policy509 Statements to this effect were contained in the document “A Ruptura Necessária” (ANecessary Break), discussed at PT’s XII National Convention in December 2001. SeeGraieb, 2002.510 Francisco Panizza, “Is Brazil becoming a “boring” country?”, Bulletin of LatinAmerican Research, 19 (2000): 503.208
community continually questioned the wisdom of the PT government’sinternational stances. This section traces the evolution of the foreign policypositions of PT, with special reference to its transition from opposition party togoverning party, and particular individuals who have played a key role in foreignpolicy decision-making in the two Lula governments.The evolution of PT’s foreign policy positionsPartido dos Trabalhadores was established in the forge of union politics in theindustrial heartlands of São Paulo in 1980, under a lathe-operator who wouldeventually become president of Brazil, Luiz Inacio ‘Lula’ da Silva. PT’s foreignpolicy platform during its early years was based on autonomy for Brazil, whichincluded distancing the country from international commitments, such as therepaying of debts, along with adherence to certain international agreements such asthe NPT.As noted by Almeida, PT itself gradually became reconciled to greater responsibilityfor Brazil in the international arena, in a long journey from its inception withsocialist undertones in the early 1980s, to its presidential campaign of 2002. 511 Thischange was characterised by a perceptible shift from ‘the battle against imperialismand global capital’, to an outlook more accommodating of the international orderand international finance. This was clearly necessitated by the demands of electoralpolitics (extending the party’s electoral appeal) and coalition-building, as well asBrazil’s external economic context at the end of the 1990s. PT needed both fundsand allies to run successful campaigns in the weak Brazilian electoral and partysystem. 512In addition, Brazil’s precarious international financial predicament by the early yearsof the 21 st century meant that any Brazilian government would have to be on goodterms with the international financial institutions, and take a more accommodatingview of global capital. Authors have noted the changes and concessions that have511 Almeida, “A Política Internacional do PT”, 88.512 The key text on the nature of Brazil’s political party and electoral systems is ScottMainwaring, Rethinking Party Systems in the Third Wave of Democratization: The Caseof Brazil. (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999).209
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To my parents, Christopher and Vali
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSNothing that preced
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LIST OF SIGNIFICANT ACRONYMS AND AB
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PTRDPSACPSADCSPLMSWAPOUNCTADUNMIHUN
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Chapter 7 The New Internationalists
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Chapter 1: Introduction1.1. Context
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overwhelmingly, yet not completely,
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Hence, shifts in the international
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antipathy of the IR literature to a
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frowned upon by developed and devel
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identify cases - and these were num
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politics and political lobbying. Th
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This is followed by the presentatio
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emerging powers Brazil, Russia, Ind
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decades. More a collection of works
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exercised more frequently, where th
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The role of left-leaning political
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outcomes? Which instruments have th
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percent. 56 In South Africa, Blacks
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Brazil, because in engaging in this
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which domestic institutional arrang
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Chapter 2: Internationalism in the
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potentially providing indications o
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and most important, that these two
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According to Goldmann, internationa
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granted that states will always hav
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transformation in the anarchical in
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2.2.3 Post-Cold WarThe immediate af
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emains a rallying cry in contempora
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their stress on peaceful settlement
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epresentation; and peaceful mechani
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experienced international marginali
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colonial state. 136 The commitment
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dominant nations which may hope to
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domestic welfare arrangements and f
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foreign policy. The latter include
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adjust to shifts in their internati
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to seemingly altruistic or ‘ethic
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ethics may underpin the same foreig
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As noted by Taliaferro, however, ne
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Systemic Constraints :AnarchyRelati
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Neorealism’s emphasis on the syst
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the executive (i.e. Lead ministries
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individuals - located at the “int
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argument, and rational cost-benefit
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nature of interim or transitional g
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The neoclassical realist framework
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104
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practicable and analytically releva
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(CUT), the main trade union confede
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These incipient foreign policy prin
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each province, consisting of 10 del
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While this figure is small in globa
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mercantilist’, 238 or ‘revoluti
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The party’s commitment to the pro
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2. Strengthening of South-South Co-
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Some of South Africa’s accomplish
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slavery. Even Brazil’s participat
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that was seen to be experiencing a
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The Presidency makes foreign policy
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and socialisation practices, as wel
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members were negotiated. 296 Recent
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President Lula’s second and last
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4.2.3. International OutlookBrazil
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linguistic distinction from its Spa
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welfare measures. The party’s rel
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142
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missions and disaster relief. Yet,
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international orientation. Most of
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electoral system. The following sec
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identity changed as the challenges
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to the United States, with the atte
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eforms undertaken in the mid-1980s.
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ecognised as the ‘sole legitimate
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Page 164 and 165: Much of Mandela’s tenure as Presi
Page 166 and 167: with more wealthy donors in the Glo
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Page 170 and 171: Thabo Mbeki was frequently lampoone
Page 172 and 173: the social-democratic Reconstructio
Page 174 and 175: At the helm of DFA were two individ
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Page 178 and 179: Globally, the United States and its
Page 180 and 181: South Africa under Mbeki had decide
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Page 186 and 187: (FOCAC) Conference in November. The
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Page 192 and 193: international norms and regimes. 45
Page 194 and 195: of Brazil. In this discussion, Braz
Page 196 and 197: This period came to an end during t
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Page 200 and 201: on so-called ‘cultural diplomacy
Page 202 and 203: exchange rate movements and the cap
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Page 210 and 211: een required of PT as a party of th
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Page 214 and 215: leader…espousing a populist polit
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Page 218 and 219: election campaign, a rarity for a f
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Page 222 and 223: 6.5. Criticism from other political
Page 224 and 225: - the 2001 attacks on the United St
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Page 230 and 231: São Tomé and Principe, Ethiopia a
Page 232 and 233: emphasised the principle of non-int
Page 234 and 235: US$180 bn, compared to US$85 bn the
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Page 238 and 239: country enjoyed, and by the apparen
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Page 242 and 243: from their repeatedly-stated commit
Page 244 and 245: On this occasion the force was able
Page 246 and 247: Instead, France and the US were mor
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Page 252 and 253: Aristide’s birthday, our people w
Page 254 and 255: 7.4. Brazil’s strategy on Haiti:
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esolutions). 664 A primary example
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However, Haiti was not merely a hum
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to share its experiences of securin
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giving near-automatic assent to the
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• Universalism, and• Internatio
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A prominent official discourse on t
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so this was an issue area that was
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Part III: Thematic Discussion and C
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Chapter 8: Neoclassical Realism, In
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policymaking elites of these states
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commitments have a substantial impa
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The resulting statement that the fi
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In South Africa, the intervening va
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liberation movement, has assumed mo
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South Africa expanded its engagemen
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more pragmatic, without losing sigh
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at the unit-level, where the state
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falls short of capturing the full g
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a political or material nature, in
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It is also plausible to expect that
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national capabilities and therewith
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300
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Appendix 1: Brazilian Presidents si
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1910: Formation of the Union of Sou
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2004: ANC wins landslide election v
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1960: Jânio Quadro is elected pres
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Renan Calheiros, speaker of the Sen
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31 May 2004: Jean-Bertrand Aristide
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SeptemberOctoberNovemberDecemberMap
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OctoberNovemberDecember11: South Af
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JuneJuly23: South Africa participat
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OctoberNovemberreadiness for South
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FebruaryMarchSouth Africa establish
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June 2006, legislative andmunicipal
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FebruaryKuwaiti deputy premier visi
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Appendix 6: Selected Brazilian Inte
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agreement proposed by theUSA to gra
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in Iran.2004JanuaryLula visits Indi
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Brazil is successful in its cottond
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Brazil opens Consulates-General in
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and MINUSTAH authorities.OctoberNov
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Maythe installation ofEMPBRAPA’s
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Honduras and Nicaragua withthe Inte
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NovemberLula requests Minister Amor
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AprilMayJuneJulyand the Palestinian
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REFERENCESList of InterviewsBrazilL
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______, Sally Morphet and Marco Ant
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______. 2004. “Aristide arrives i
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______, Jacqueline Anne. 2003. “C
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Connors, Michael E. Connors. 2005.
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contributors). 1986. How Foreign Po
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Glenn, John. 2009. “Realism versu
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Hirst, Monica. 2009. “South Ameri
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Jönsson, Christer. 2002. “Chapte
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Lipton, Merle. 2009. “Understandi
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______. 2004. “State of the Natio
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International Studies Convention, L
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Pfister, Roger. 2003. “Gateway to
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Samuels, David. 2004. “From Socia
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______. 2003. “Culture(s) of the
Page 378 and 379:
UOL Notícias. 2009. “Celso Amori
Page 380:
World Bank. 2009. Gross Domestic Pr
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