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Brazil’s military capabilities are growing more potent. So too are other states ofSouth America, including Argentina and Chile, improving their armed forces. Thisproliferation of military power throughout the region tends to offset Brazil’semergence by building a new regional balance of power around military deterrencerather than Brazilian pre-eminence. Greater autonomy of all regional actors tendsto result, which is reinforced by the decline in the traditional U.S. hegemonical (sic)role. 501More than two decades later, Brazil has continued to capitalise on its continentalscale and expansive domestic market to be not only the largest economy by somedistance in Latin America, but also one of the top ten economies worldwide. In2008, Brazil boasted a GDP of USD1.5 trillion. 502 This dwarfed that of itsneighbours (see Table 3 below). However, it is in the diplomatic arena that the mostsignificant shifts in the balance of power have occurred. The primary ‘objective’threats facing Brazil in the security sphere, during Cardoso’s presidency, as in Lula’s,were those posed by transnational movements of people, drugs and small arms andlight weapons. In the meantime, Brazil has also found itself, as a consequence of thePT presidential election victories of 2002 and 2006, at the centre of an ideologicalbattle for the left of regional and hemispheric dimensions. 503The rise of Hugo Chavez’s ambitions for a Bolívarian revolution in Latin Americahas set the Brazilian cat among the populist left pigeons of Venezuela, Bolivia andEcuador. This ‘battle’ acquired further significance with the rising tensions betweenUS-backed Colombia and Venezuela in 2009-10.Thus Cardoso’s approach to foreign policy was clearly more conservative, andrespectful of US hegemony in international affairs. Indeed, the first task ofdiplomacy was seen as being “primarily didactic in nature”, educating national actorsabout globalization and facilitating its acceptance as an international (and domestic)‘reality’. 504 Indeed, Hurrell has suggested that in terms of his view of the impact ofglobalisation, Cardoso should be classed a ‘hyperglobalist’: the pressures on states to501 Ibid., 192.502 World Bank. 2011. World Development Indicators.503 See Sean Burges, “Building a global southern coalition: the competing approaches ofBrazil’s Lula and Venezuela’s Chávez”, Third World Quarterly, 28, Issue 7 (2007).504 Lessa et al., “Politica externa planejada”, 93.206
converge in policy were substantial, as was the need to seek the approval of themarkets. 505GDP Annual Per % GDP % GDPCountryPopulation (current Growth Capita spent spent on(millions) US $ Rate Income on socialmillions) (%), (US$) military services 506Argentina 39,882 328,465 6.8 7,190 0.761 10%+5.5%Bolivia 9,694,113 16, 674 6.1 1,460 1.5 5.0%+ndBRAZIL 191,971,506 1,575,150 5.1 7,300 1.48 8.4%+ndColombia 45,012,096 243,765 2.5 4,620 3.72 6.1%+4.1%Guyana 763,437 1,155 3.0 1,450 No data 8.2%+6.1%Paraguay 6,237,855 15,976 5.8 2,110 0.828 5.7%+ndPeru 28,836,700 129,109 9.8 3,990 1.24 4.3%+2.5%Suriname 515,124 3,033 5.1 4,760 No data 7.6%+ndUruguay 3,334,052 32,186 8.9 8,260 1.22 8.0%+3.5%Venezuela 27,935,000 314,150 4.8 9,230 1.06 5.8%+3.7%Table 3: Brazil’s neighbours: Economic Statistics (correct as at 2008). 507While the Cardoso administration was coming under increasing pressure for itshandling of various domestic issues, including the economy and the issue of landredistribution, PT was preparing itself for a more prominent national role, byattempting finally to secure victory in the 2002 elections, after 3 previous failedattempts. This included relaxing its policy on cross-party alliances, and generally‘normalising’ its approach to Brazilian politics. 508 It also made room for moderate505 Andrew Hurrell, “Cardoso e o mundo” in Democracia, crise e reforma, eds., MariaAngela D’Incao and Hermínio Martins (São Paulo: Paz e Terra, 2010): 476.506 Combined spending on healthcare and education, as a percentage of GDP. Correctfor 2007.507 World Bank, http://data.worldbank.org508 For a discussion of this phenomenon, see Wendy Hunter, “The Normalization of anAnomaly: The Workers’ Party in Brazil”, World Politics, 59, No.3 (April 2007).207
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To my parents, Christopher and Vali
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSNothing that preced
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LIST OF SIGNIFICANT ACRONYMS AND AB
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PTRDPSACPSADCSPLMSWAPOUNCTADUNMIHUN
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Chapter 7 The New Internationalists
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Chapter 1: Introduction1.1. Context
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overwhelmingly, yet not completely,
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Hence, shifts in the international
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antipathy of the IR literature to a
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frowned upon by developed and devel
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identify cases - and these were num
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politics and political lobbying. Th
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This is followed by the presentatio
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emerging powers Brazil, Russia, Ind
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decades. More a collection of works
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exercised more frequently, where th
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The role of left-leaning political
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outcomes? Which instruments have th
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percent. 56 In South Africa, Blacks
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Brazil, because in engaging in this
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which domestic institutional arrang
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Chapter 2: Internationalism in the
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potentially providing indications o
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and most important, that these two
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According to Goldmann, internationa
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granted that states will always hav
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transformation in the anarchical in
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2.2.3 Post-Cold WarThe immediate af
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emains a rallying cry in contempora
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their stress on peaceful settlement
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epresentation; and peaceful mechani
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experienced international marginali
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colonial state. 136 The commitment
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dominant nations which may hope to
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domestic welfare arrangements and f
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foreign policy. The latter include
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adjust to shifts in their internati
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to seemingly altruistic or ‘ethic
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ethics may underpin the same foreig
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As noted by Taliaferro, however, ne
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Systemic Constraints :AnarchyRelati
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Neorealism’s emphasis on the syst
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the executive (i.e. Lead ministries
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individuals - located at the “int
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argument, and rational cost-benefit
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nature of interim or transitional g
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The neoclassical realist framework
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104
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practicable and analytically releva
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(CUT), the main trade union confede
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These incipient foreign policy prin
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each province, consisting of 10 del
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While this figure is small in globa
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mercantilist’, 238 or ‘revoluti
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The party’s commitment to the pro
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2. Strengthening of South-South Co-
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Some of South Africa’s accomplish
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slavery. Even Brazil’s participat
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that was seen to be experiencing a
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The Presidency makes foreign policy
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and socialisation practices, as wel
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members were negotiated. 296 Recent
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President Lula’s second and last
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4.2.3. International OutlookBrazil
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linguistic distinction from its Spa
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welfare measures. The party’s rel
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142
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missions and disaster relief. Yet,
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international orientation. Most of
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electoral system. The following sec
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identity changed as the challenges
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to the United States, with the atte
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eforms undertaken in the mid-1980s.
Page 156 and 157: ecognised as the ‘sole legitimate
Page 158 and 159: whole world. ANC solidarity was not
Page 160 and 161: 1994, 370 placing tangible limits o
Page 162 and 163: The organisation’s main shortcomi
Page 164 and 165: Much of Mandela’s tenure as Presi
Page 166 and 167: with more wealthy donors in the Glo
Page 168 and 169: complicates the task of separating
Page 170 and 171: Thabo Mbeki was frequently lampoone
Page 172 and 173: the social-democratic Reconstructio
Page 174 and 175: At the helm of DFA were two individ
Page 176 and 177: policy. One, which is less signific
Page 178 and 179: Globally, the United States and its
Page 180 and 181: South Africa under Mbeki had decide
Page 182 and 183: his support for Mugabe against the
Page 184 and 185: on Participation in International P
Page 186 and 187: (FOCAC) Conference in November. The
Page 188 and 189: Mbeki’s last full year in office,
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Page 192 and 193: international norms and regimes. 45
Page 194 and 195: of Brazil. In this discussion, Braz
Page 196 and 197: This period came to an end during t
Page 198 and 199: This dilemma - the choice between c
Page 200 and 201: on so-called ‘cultural diplomacy
Page 202 and 203: exchange rate movements and the cap
Page 204 and 205: and conflict resolution under the W
Page 208 and 209: shifts in its approach to Brazil’
Page 210 and 211: een required of PT as a party of th
Page 212 and 213: A number of scholars are agreed tha
Page 214 and 215: leader…espousing a populist polit
Page 216 and 217: foreign policy document, it was the
Page 218 and 219: election campaign, a rarity for a f
Page 220 and 221: alumni, have been the subject of mu
Page 222 and 223: 6.5. Criticism from other political
Page 224 and 225: - the 2001 attacks on the United St
Page 226 and 227: Middle East, but they also appeared
Page 228 and 229: limitations on its capacities for w
Page 230 and 231: São Tomé and Principe, Ethiopia a
Page 232 and 233: emphasised the principle of non-int
Page 234 and 235: US$180 bn, compared to US$85 bn the
Page 236 and 237: underscored by increased military s
Page 238 and 239: country enjoyed, and by the apparen
Page 240 and 241: Chapter 7: The New Internationalist
Page 242 and 243: from their repeatedly-stated commit
Page 244 and 245: On this occasion the force was able
Page 246 and 247: Instead, France and the US were mor
Page 248 and 249: and groups in their efforts to prom
Page 250 and 251: to the leader of the Parliamentary
Page 252 and 253: Aristide’s birthday, our people w
Page 254 and 255: 7.4. Brazil’s strategy on Haiti:
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taken by two branches of the armed
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esolutions). 664 A primary example
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However, Haiti was not merely a hum
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to share its experiences of securin
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giving near-automatic assent to the
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• Universalism, and• Internatio
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A prominent official discourse on t
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so this was an issue area that was
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Part III: Thematic Discussion and C
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Chapter 8: Neoclassical Realism, In
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policymaking elites of these states
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commitments have a substantial impa
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The resulting statement that the fi
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In South Africa, the intervening va
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liberation movement, has assumed mo
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South Africa expanded its engagemen
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more pragmatic, without losing sigh
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at the unit-level, where the state
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falls short of capturing the full g
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a political or material nature, in
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It is also plausible to expect that
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national capabilities and therewith
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300
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Appendix 1: Brazilian Presidents si
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1910: Formation of the Union of Sou
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2004: ANC wins landslide election v
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1960: Jânio Quadro is elected pres
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Renan Calheiros, speaker of the Sen
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31 May 2004: Jean-Bertrand Aristide
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SeptemberOctoberNovemberDecemberMap
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OctoberNovemberDecember11: South Af
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JuneJuly23: South Africa participat
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OctoberNovemberreadiness for South
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FebruaryMarchSouth Africa establish
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June 2006, legislative andmunicipal
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FebruaryKuwaiti deputy premier visi
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Appendix 6: Selected Brazilian Inte
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agreement proposed by theUSA to gra
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in Iran.2004JanuaryLula visits Indi
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Brazil is successful in its cottond
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Brazil opens Consulates-General in
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and MINUSTAH authorities.OctoberNov
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Maythe installation ofEMPBRAPA’s
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Honduras and Nicaragua withthe Inte
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NovemberLula requests Minister Amor
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AprilMayJuneJulyand the Palestinian
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REFERENCESList of InterviewsBrazilL
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______, Sally Morphet and Marco Ant
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______. 2004. “Aristide arrives i
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______, Jacqueline Anne. 2003. “C
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Connors, Michael E. Connors. 2005.
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contributors). 1986. How Foreign Po
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Glenn, John. 2009. “Realism versu
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Hirst, Monica. 2009. “South Ameri
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Jönsson, Christer. 2002. “Chapte
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Lipton, Merle. 2009. “Understandi
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______. 2004. “State of the Natio
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International Studies Convention, L
Page 372 and 373:
Pfister, Roger. 2003. “Gateway to
Page 374 and 375:
Samuels, David. 2004. “From Socia
Page 376 and 377:
______. 2003. “Culture(s) of the
Page 378 and 379:
UOL Notícias. 2009. “Celso Amori
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World Bank. 2009. Gross Domestic Pr
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