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alumni, have been the subject of much recent conjecture about the contemporaryLatin American left by those who fear its influence. It is by virtue of such networksthat Marco Aurélio Garcia, Lula’s foreign policy advisor, has been able to maintaingood relations, and further Brazil’s national interests, along with PT’s, inneighbouring countries.However, the prominence of these individuals tends to overshadow an importantfactor, namely the lack of depth in PT’s foreign policy expertise. With thepublication of a comprehensive foreign policy document for the first time in 2010,the relative unimportance of this policy area to PT’s fortunes (compared to morepressing domestic issues of education, land redistribution, and social welfare) wasunderscored.c. The party policymaking processPositions on foreign policy are developed in cooperation with the InternationalRelations office of PT. They are submitted to the Congress of the Party and theParty’s National Directorate for ratification. The International Relations office has abroad mandate to propose, develop and maintain Workers’ Party positions oninternational issues, ranging from regional integration, to PT positions on foreignelections. 559 More than this, it is responsible for a range of international activities tosharpen the profile of PT abroad. It is not clear to which extent Lula initiatedpolicy, or whether the bulk of this responsibility fell to Garcia and the Partyleadership 560 , and to a lesser extent, Pinheiro. Once Party positions were established,however, it is reasonable to assume that they became subject to the twin dynamicsof institutional freedom and legitimating capacity outlined more broadly in thissection.559 PT, 2010: 38-39.560 It should be noted that Lula was not PT president while he was President of Brazil.While he remains an Honorary President of PT – a position he could not hold whileserving as Brazilian President – the following served as party presidents during his twoterms as State President: José Genoino (2002-2005), Tarso Genro (2005) (interim),Ricardo Berzoini (2005-2006), Marco Aurelio Garcia (2006-2007) (interim), RicardoBerzoini (2007-2010), and José Eduardo Dutra (2010-2011). List obtained fromWikipedia, ‘Partido dos Trabalhadores’, accessed at:http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partido_dos_Trabalhadores on 26 June, 2011.220
d. The Party in CongressWhile PT was the largest party in Congress following the 2002 elections with 81seats, increasing to 83 seats in the 2006 election, it required the cooperation of otherparties to pass legislation in the 513-seat Chamber of Deputies. As noted inChapter 4 (p.126), Congress has largely had a retroactive role in foreignpolicymaking, so the Party’s role is limited to providing and winning cross-partysupport for treaties and agreements entered into by the executive, as well as for theapproval of the President’s selection of ambassadors. Nonetheless, this has notdiminished the role of the legislature in foreign policy.One prominent example is the Chamber of Deputies’ long and drawn-out processof confirmation of the Executive’s approval of Venezuela’s accession to Mercosulin June 2006. The Chamber of Deputies, controlled by PT and parties allied with it,ratified Venezuela’s accession within a year of the accession protocol being agreedby Heads of State. With potentially far-reaching effects for Brazilian trade withVenezuela, regional relations, and the promotion of democracy in South America,the Senate delayed the vote on Venezuela’s accession to Mercosul. Approval wasonly secured in December 2009, 561 prompting searching questions for Brazil’s rolein the regional integration process in South America. Among these are howdemocracy can be strengthened from the regional perspective in the face ofcompelling economic motives for increased trade and enhanced regulation ofcommercial relations. As an indication of this dilemma, Venezuela was at this timeextending its reach into the Brazilian extractive industries, with a 40% stake in a newoil refinery in north-eastern Brazil. 562 Opposition Senators had cited the increasingsuppression of democratic liberties in Venezuela as not being consonant withMercosul’s democracy requirement for member states. The episode also revealedthe limits of Lula’s and PT’s control over foreign policy after the taking of initialdecisions by the executive.561 Rabello, Maria Luiza, “Brazil Senators Approve Venezuela Entry Into Mercosur”,Bloomberg, 15 December, 2009. Accessed online at:http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aKMncefxQsq4 on 10October 2010.562 BBC News, “Brazil and Venezuela link trade” (2007)accessed online athttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7143728.stm on 1 March, 2011.221
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To my parents, Christopher and Vali
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSNothing that preced
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LIST OF SIGNIFICANT ACRONYMS AND AB
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PTRDPSACPSADCSPLMSWAPOUNCTADUNMIHUN
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Chapter 7 The New Internationalists
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Chapter 1: Introduction1.1. Context
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overwhelmingly, yet not completely,
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Hence, shifts in the international
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antipathy of the IR literature to a
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frowned upon by developed and devel
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identify cases - and these were num
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politics and political lobbying. Th
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This is followed by the presentatio
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emerging powers Brazil, Russia, Ind
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decades. More a collection of works
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exercised more frequently, where th
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The role of left-leaning political
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outcomes? Which instruments have th
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percent. 56 In South Africa, Blacks
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Brazil, because in engaging in this
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which domestic institutional arrang
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Chapter 2: Internationalism in the
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potentially providing indications o
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and most important, that these two
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According to Goldmann, internationa
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granted that states will always hav
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transformation in the anarchical in
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2.2.3 Post-Cold WarThe immediate af
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emains a rallying cry in contempora
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their stress on peaceful settlement
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epresentation; and peaceful mechani
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experienced international marginali
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colonial state. 136 The commitment
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dominant nations which may hope to
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domestic welfare arrangements and f
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foreign policy. The latter include
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adjust to shifts in their internati
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to seemingly altruistic or ‘ethic
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ethics may underpin the same foreig
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As noted by Taliaferro, however, ne
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Systemic Constraints :AnarchyRelati
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Neorealism’s emphasis on the syst
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the executive (i.e. Lead ministries
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individuals - located at the “int
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argument, and rational cost-benefit
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nature of interim or transitional g
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The neoclassical realist framework
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104
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practicable and analytically releva
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(CUT), the main trade union confede
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These incipient foreign policy prin
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each province, consisting of 10 del
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While this figure is small in globa
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mercantilist’, 238 or ‘revoluti
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The party’s commitment to the pro
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2. Strengthening of South-South Co-
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Some of South Africa’s accomplish
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slavery. Even Brazil’s participat
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that was seen to be experiencing a
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The Presidency makes foreign policy
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and socialisation practices, as wel
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members were negotiated. 296 Recent
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President Lula’s second and last
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4.2.3. International OutlookBrazil
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linguistic distinction from its Spa
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welfare measures. The party’s rel
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142
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missions and disaster relief. Yet,
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international orientation. Most of
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electoral system. The following sec
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identity changed as the challenges
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to the United States, with the atte
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eforms undertaken in the mid-1980s.
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ecognised as the ‘sole legitimate
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whole world. ANC solidarity was not
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1994, 370 placing tangible limits o
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The organisation’s main shortcomi
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Much of Mandela’s tenure as Presi
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with more wealthy donors in the Glo
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complicates the task of separating
Page 170 and 171: Thabo Mbeki was frequently lampoone
Page 172 and 173: the social-democratic Reconstructio
Page 174 and 175: At the helm of DFA were two individ
Page 176 and 177: policy. One, which is less signific
Page 178 and 179: Globally, the United States and its
Page 180 and 181: South Africa under Mbeki had decide
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Page 186 and 187: (FOCAC) Conference in November. The
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Page 192 and 193: international norms and regimes. 45
Page 194 and 195: of Brazil. In this discussion, Braz
Page 196 and 197: This period came to an end during t
Page 198 and 199: This dilemma - the choice between c
Page 200 and 201: on so-called ‘cultural diplomacy
Page 202 and 203: exchange rate movements and the cap
Page 204 and 205: and conflict resolution under the W
Page 206 and 207: Brazil’s military capabilities ar
Page 208 and 209: shifts in its approach to Brazil’
Page 210 and 211: een required of PT as a party of th
Page 212 and 213: A number of scholars are agreed tha
Page 214 and 215: leader…espousing a populist polit
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Page 218 and 219: election campaign, a rarity for a f
Page 222 and 223: 6.5. Criticism from other political
Page 224 and 225: - the 2001 attacks on the United St
Page 226 and 227: Middle East, but they also appeared
Page 228 and 229: limitations on its capacities for w
Page 230 and 231: São Tomé and Principe, Ethiopia a
Page 232 and 233: emphasised the principle of non-int
Page 234 and 235: US$180 bn, compared to US$85 bn the
Page 236 and 237: underscored by increased military s
Page 238 and 239: country enjoyed, and by the apparen
Page 240 and 241: Chapter 7: The New Internationalist
Page 242 and 243: from their repeatedly-stated commit
Page 244 and 245: On this occasion the force was able
Page 246 and 247: Instead, France and the US were mor
Page 248 and 249: and groups in their efforts to prom
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Page 252 and 253: Aristide’s birthday, our people w
Page 254 and 255: 7.4. Brazil’s strategy on Haiti:
Page 256 and 257: taken by two branches of the armed
Page 258 and 259: esolutions). 664 A primary example
Page 260 and 261: However, Haiti was not merely a hum
Page 262 and 263: to share its experiences of securin
Page 264 and 265: giving near-automatic assent to the
Page 266 and 267: • Universalism, and• Internatio
Page 268 and 269: A prominent official discourse on t
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so this was an issue area that was
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Part III: Thematic Discussion and C
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Chapter 8: Neoclassical Realism, In
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policymaking elites of these states
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commitments have a substantial impa
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The resulting statement that the fi
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In South Africa, the intervening va
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liberation movement, has assumed mo
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South Africa expanded its engagemen
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more pragmatic, without losing sigh
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at the unit-level, where the state
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falls short of capturing the full g
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a political or material nature, in
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It is also plausible to expect that
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national capabilities and therewith
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300
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Appendix 1: Brazilian Presidents si
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1910: Formation of the Union of Sou
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2004: ANC wins landslide election v
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1960: Jânio Quadro is elected pres
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Renan Calheiros, speaker of the Sen
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31 May 2004: Jean-Bertrand Aristide
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SeptemberOctoberNovemberDecemberMap
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OctoberNovemberDecember11: South Af
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JuneJuly23: South Africa participat
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OctoberNovemberreadiness for South
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FebruaryMarchSouth Africa establish
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June 2006, legislative andmunicipal
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FebruaryKuwaiti deputy premier visi
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Appendix 6: Selected Brazilian Inte
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agreement proposed by theUSA to gra
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in Iran.2004JanuaryLula visits Indi
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Brazil is successful in its cottond
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Brazil opens Consulates-General in
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and MINUSTAH authorities.OctoberNov
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Maythe installation ofEMPBRAPA’s
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Honduras and Nicaragua withthe Inte
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NovemberLula requests Minister Amor
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AprilMayJuneJulyand the Palestinian
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REFERENCESList of InterviewsBrazilL
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______, Sally Morphet and Marco Ant
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______. 2004. “Aristide arrives i
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______, Jacqueline Anne. 2003. “C
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Connors, Michael E. Connors. 2005.
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contributors). 1986. How Foreign Po
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Glenn, John. 2009. “Realism versu
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Hirst, Monica. 2009. “South Ameri
Page 364 and 365:
Jönsson, Christer. 2002. “Chapte
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Lipton, Merle. 2009. “Understandi
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______. 2004. “State of the Natio
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International Studies Convention, L
Page 372 and 373:
Pfister, Roger. 2003. “Gateway to
Page 374 and 375:
Samuels, David. 2004. “From Socia
Page 376 and 377:
______. 2003. “Culture(s) of the
Page 378 and 379:
UOL Notícias. 2009. “Celso Amori
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World Bank. 2009. Gross Domestic Pr
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