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and most important, that these two processes, and their interaction, are broadly tobe desired, ‘a good thing’. 75More substantively, internationalism refers to “the idea that we both are and shouldbe part of a broader community than that of the nation or the state”. 76An earlier, and very influential interpretation came from the student of imperialism,J.A Hobson, for whom it was characterised by “its assumptions of rationality, theharmony of interests and the possibility (or inevitability) of progress in humanaffairs” 77 . For Lawler, internationalism is “a philosophy of foreign policyconstructed around an ethical obligation on the part of states actively to pursueauthentically other-regarding values and interests” 78 . There is thus broad agreementon internationalism compelling action extending beyond the nation, or the state,and having ethical foundations.In a narrower, procedural, sense, ‘internationalism’ is also the name given to aninternational political programme. This programme, it may be argued, hasuniversally been seen as an antidote to the pitfalls of an anarchical internationalsystem, through its commitment to finding means of peaceful coexistence betweensovereign states. Through the ages, the programme has assumed different forms,depending on how threats to international peace and security are conceived.Internationalism has traditionally been suggested as a ‘middle way’ between ‘realism’and ‘universalism’ 79 . While for realists conflict is inherent in a system composed ofindependent states, without a central overarching authority, ‘universalists’ placegreater store in ‘the essential unity of mankind’, regardless of the divisions imposedby ‘international relations’ and state sovereignty. 80 Yet, internationalism appears toaccept the inevitability of conflict between states, while still seeking peaceful meansof conflict mediation.75 Fred Halliday, “International Relations in a post-hegemonic age”, International Affairs,85, No.1 (2009): 47.76 Fred Halliday, “Three concepts of internationalism”, International Affairs, 64, No. 2(1988): 187.77 J.A. Hobson, cited in David Long, Towards a new liberal internationalism: theinternational theory of J.A. Hobson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996): 3.78 Ibid., 441.79 Bull, The Anarchical Society, 24-7, cited in Kjell Goldmann, The logic ofinternationalism: coercion and accommodation (London: Routledge, 1994): 19.80 Goldmann, The Logic of Internationalism, 19-20.55