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the social-democratic Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) nationaleconomic development programme, with the neoliberal GEAR economic policy. Asa prominent and notorious example, Mandela and Mbeki had presented GEAR in1996 as a fait accompli, citing the non-negotiability of ‘globalisation’ when it wasclearly the position of the organisation at large that “(w)hile globalisation is a reality,it is not a fixed and unchallengeable process in which there are no alternatives”. 406The introduction of GEAR heightened an already-simmering debate within thetripartite alliance about the future direction of domestic economic policy, andstarted to strain relations between the ANC and its alliance partners.The ruling party exercises significant influence on decision-making structures,notwithstanding the occasional independent political stances of individual seniorparty members. This is because the same individuals occupy key decision-makingpositions in both the Executive (President, Deputy President, most CabinetMinisters and some Directors-General) and in the ruling party, especially theNational Executive Committee and the smaller National Working Committee. 407According to Ebrahim Ebrahim, a senior ANC member, who also served as Chairof the Parliamentary Portfolio Committee on Foreign Affairs,Policy comes from the ANC, from the resolutions passed at the ANC congress, tothe NEC (it has a subcommittee on foreign affairs) which meets every 2 months. Itstarts with the President’s report, which always includes international affairs. Thenthere is general discussion. It can make recommendations, amendments, andcritiques. For example, on the question of Nepad and the Renaissance, which camefrom the Presidency, it was discussed by the NEC and then endorsed. 408While the Party’s apparently democratic policymaking processes may allow forconsiderable grassroots input on a wide array of policy questions, from local branch,to Regional Executive Committee, to NEC, Lodge identifies an important anomalyin the social identity of the ANC:The social character of its following prompts the ANC to maintain that it provides‘a disciplined force of the left’, representing ‘the needs and aspirations of the406 African National Congress. 1997. “Resolutions: International Relations”, accessedonline at:http://www.anc.org.za/show.php?include=docs/res/1997/resolutions4.html&ID=2432 on21 November 2010.407 Van Nieuwkerk, “South Africa and African Crises”, 106.408 Ebrahim, Ebrahim. 2003. Cited in Ibid., p107.172
overwhelming majority of South Africans, many of whom are poor’, despite itsgrowing financial dependence on big business. 409In this way, the party’s policymaking system is somewhat vulnerable to theinfluence of well-resourced lobbyists and campaigners.However, not only is the ANC party machinery, especially at election time, highlydependent on large disbursements from the private sector within South Africa thatremain undisclosed. It is also the beneficiary of funding from other controversialsources, such as the governments of China and Malaysia, with at times negativeconsequences for transparency in policymaking. (See sub-section a.)d. DFA and ParliamentThere are thus two competing trends at play: on one hand, institutional freedomwas gradually won as the consequence of the African National Congress’sunquestionable political hegemony in South African society, and the increasingblurring of the lines between state and party, with the appointment of central partyfigures or people close to the President in pivotal state institutions. At the polls, theparty regularly won majorities in excess of 66%, translating into overwhelmingmajorities in parliament. On the other hand, this freedom was not necessarily wonfor party positions, as Luthuli House (as ANC party headquarters in Johannesburgis known) became increasingly marginalised from the policymaking apparatus withMbeki’s consolidation of his own political position. Thus, while the ability to actwith progressively less opposition to policy proposals was being enhanced, this wasnot necessarily in favour of the party. As Chothia and Jacobs note,The major losers in the restructuring of the presidency, and its effects on policymakingand the exercise of political power, are parliament and the ANC…But it isthe position of the ANC as a political entity relative to the presidency that has been the mostnegatively affected. As the president builds the capacity of his executive office, so theANC’s capacity dwindles. Mbeki wants officials at ANC headquarters to bemanagers, dealing with organisational matters such as errant branches and buildingelection machinery rather than with political issues. 410409 Ibid., 192.410 Farouk Chothia and Sean Jacobs, “Remaking the Presidency: the tension betweenco-ordination and centralization”, in Thabo Mbeki’s World, eds., Jacobs and Calland:153-154. Emphasis added.173
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To my parents, Christopher and Vali
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSNothing that preced
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LIST OF SIGNIFICANT ACRONYMS AND AB
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PTRDPSACPSADCSPLMSWAPOUNCTADUNMIHUN
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Chapter 7 The New Internationalists
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Chapter 1: Introduction1.1. Context
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overwhelmingly, yet not completely,
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Hence, shifts in the international
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antipathy of the IR literature to a
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frowned upon by developed and devel
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identify cases - and these were num
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politics and political lobbying. Th
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This is followed by the presentatio
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emerging powers Brazil, Russia, Ind
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decades. More a collection of works
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exercised more frequently, where th
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The role of left-leaning political
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outcomes? Which instruments have th
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percent. 56 In South Africa, Blacks
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Brazil, because in engaging in this
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which domestic institutional arrang
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Chapter 2: Internationalism in the
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potentially providing indications o
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and most important, that these two
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According to Goldmann, internationa
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granted that states will always hav
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transformation in the anarchical in
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2.2.3 Post-Cold WarThe immediate af
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emains a rallying cry in contempora
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their stress on peaceful settlement
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epresentation; and peaceful mechani
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experienced international marginali
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colonial state. 136 The commitment
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dominant nations which may hope to
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domestic welfare arrangements and f
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foreign policy. The latter include
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adjust to shifts in their internati
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to seemingly altruistic or ‘ethic
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ethics may underpin the same foreig
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As noted by Taliaferro, however, ne
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Systemic Constraints :AnarchyRelati
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Neorealism’s emphasis on the syst
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the executive (i.e. Lead ministries
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individuals - located at the “int
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argument, and rational cost-benefit
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nature of interim or transitional g
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The neoclassical realist framework
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104
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practicable and analytically releva
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(CUT), the main trade union confede
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These incipient foreign policy prin
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each province, consisting of 10 del
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While this figure is small in globa
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mercantilist’, 238 or ‘revoluti
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The party’s commitment to the pro
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2. Strengthening of South-South Co-
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Page 132 and 133: members were negotiated. 296 Recent
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Page 136 and 137: 4.2.3. International OutlookBrazil
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Page 140 and 141: welfare measures. The party’s rel
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Page 144 and 145: missions and disaster relief. Yet,
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Page 156 and 157: ecognised as the ‘sole legitimate
Page 158 and 159: whole world. ANC solidarity was not
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Page 162 and 163: The organisation’s main shortcomi
Page 164 and 165: Much of Mandela’s tenure as Presi
Page 166 and 167: with more wealthy donors in the Glo
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Page 170 and 171: Thabo Mbeki was frequently lampoone
Page 174 and 175: At the helm of DFA were two individ
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Page 178 and 179: Globally, the United States and its
Page 180 and 181: South Africa under Mbeki had decide
Page 182 and 183: his support for Mugabe against the
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Page 186 and 187: (FOCAC) Conference in November. The
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Page 192 and 193: international norms and regimes. 45
Page 194 and 195: of Brazil. In this discussion, Braz
Page 196 and 197: This period came to an end during t
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Page 200 and 201: on so-called ‘cultural diplomacy
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Page 208 and 209: shifts in its approach to Brazil’
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6.5. Criticism from other political
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- the 2001 attacks on the United St
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Middle East, but they also appeared
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limitations on its capacities for w
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São Tomé and Principe, Ethiopia a
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emphasised the principle of non-int
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US$180 bn, compared to US$85 bn the
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underscored by increased military s
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country enjoyed, and by the apparen
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Chapter 7: The New Internationalist
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from their repeatedly-stated commit
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On this occasion the force was able
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Instead, France and the US were mor
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and groups in their efforts to prom
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to the leader of the Parliamentary
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Aristide’s birthday, our people w
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7.4. Brazil’s strategy on Haiti:
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taken by two branches of the armed
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esolutions). 664 A primary example
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However, Haiti was not merely a hum
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to share its experiences of securin
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giving near-automatic assent to the
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• Universalism, and• Internatio
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A prominent official discourse on t
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so this was an issue area that was
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Part III: Thematic Discussion and C
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Chapter 8: Neoclassical Realism, In
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policymaking elites of these states
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commitments have a substantial impa
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The resulting statement that the fi
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In South Africa, the intervening va
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liberation movement, has assumed mo
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South Africa expanded its engagemen
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more pragmatic, without losing sigh
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at the unit-level, where the state
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falls short of capturing the full g
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a political or material nature, in
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It is also plausible to expect that
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national capabilities and therewith
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300
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Appendix 1: Brazilian Presidents si
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1910: Formation of the Union of Sou
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2004: ANC wins landslide election v
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1960: Jânio Quadro is elected pres
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Renan Calheiros, speaker of the Sen
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31 May 2004: Jean-Bertrand Aristide
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SeptemberOctoberNovemberDecemberMap
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OctoberNovemberDecember11: South Af
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JuneJuly23: South Africa participat
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OctoberNovemberreadiness for South
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FebruaryMarchSouth Africa establish
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June 2006, legislative andmunicipal
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FebruaryKuwaiti deputy premier visi
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Appendix 6: Selected Brazilian Inte
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agreement proposed by theUSA to gra
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in Iran.2004JanuaryLula visits Indi
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Brazil is successful in its cottond
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Brazil opens Consulates-General in
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and MINUSTAH authorities.OctoberNov
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Maythe installation ofEMPBRAPA’s
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Honduras and Nicaragua withthe Inte
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NovemberLula requests Minister Amor
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AprilMayJuneJulyand the Palestinian
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REFERENCESList of InterviewsBrazilL
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______, Sally Morphet and Marco Ant
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______. 2004. “Aristide arrives i
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______, Jacqueline Anne. 2003. “C
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Connors, Michael E. Connors. 2005.
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contributors). 1986. How Foreign Po
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Glenn, John. 2009. “Realism versu
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Hirst, Monica. 2009. “South Ameri
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Jönsson, Christer. 2002. “Chapte
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Lipton, Merle. 2009. “Understandi
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______. 2004. “State of the Natio
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International Studies Convention, L
Page 372 and 373:
Pfister, Roger. 2003. “Gateway to
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Samuels, David. 2004. “From Socia
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______. 2003. “Culture(s) of the
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UOL Notícias. 2009. “Celso Amori
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World Bank. 2009. Gross Domestic Pr
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