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that was seen to be experiencing a ‘Pink Revolution’ led by leaders of the politicalleft, potentially threatening to US interests.4.2.1. Institutional Arrangements for Foreign Policymaking: Party abovePolicy?The role of the LegislatureIn Brazil, legislative power is exercised by the National Congress. The Congress is atwo-house Chamber, comprised of a Chamber of Deputies and the Federal Senate.Members of the Chamber of Deputies are directly elected and serve for 4-yearterms, while those of the Senate, also directly elected, serve for 8 years. Decisions ofeach house are by majority vote. Legislative power over the foreign policy processin Brazil tends to be more reactive than continuous. The legislature only possessesthe competence to “decide conclusively on international treaties, agreements orinternational acts which result in changes or commitments that go against thenational property”; 277 and to “authorise the President of the Republic to declarewar, to make peace and to permit foreign forces to pass through the nationalterritory…”. 278 Within the legislative branch of government, there are standingcommittees for foreign affairs in both the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies.The treaty approval prerogative of the Senate was expanded by the 1988Constitution. All international financial agreements, such as those with the IMF andforeign banks, must be approved by the upper house, whereas prior to the 1988Constitution, approval by the executive was exclusively required. Therefore, Lulaentered the Palacio do Planalto with fewer executive powers over foreign policy thanhis immediate predecessor, Cardoso, and the Presidents of the military regimes, butthis did not necessarily hamper his grasp on foreign policy formulation.According to the Brazilian Constitution of 1988, Brazil’s international relations areto be governed by the following principles:• National independence277 Constitution of Brazil, 1988: Section I, Article 49.1, accessed online at:http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/Brazil/english96.html#mozTocId732442 on 26July, 2010.278 Ibid., Article 49.2.126
• Prevalence of human rights• Self-determination of peoples• Non-intervention• Equality among states• Defense of the peace• Peaceful settlement of conflicts• Repudiation of terrorism and racism• Cooperation among peoples for the progress of mankind• Granting of political asylum. 279The 1988 Constitution is notable, furthermore, for in addition to having formaliseddemocracy, it actually reflected the influence of conservative elements in Braziliansociety – those who desired no, or only gradual change from military rule - forexample by entrenching numerous military prerogatives that had the effect offreezing civil-military relations in democratic Brazil. 280 This founding feature ofmodern democracy in Brazil should not be underestimated in calculations aboutforeign policy formulation in the democratic administrations since 1985.The role of the Executive: The PresidencyAs stated in the 1988 Constitution, the responsibility for formulating foreign policyis vested in the Executive. According to an early observer writing during the militarydictatorship, “The Brazilian executive has exceptionally wide powers to handle thebig issues of foreign policy and to shape Brazil’s foreign relations – powers thatWestern industrial countries customarily grant their leaders only in times of war”. 281While much has changed since the dictatorship ended formally in 1985, this aspectof Brazilian policymaking by and large remains the same, in spite of the expansionof the Senate’s treaty approval prerogative.279 Constitution of Brazil 1988(English translation), accessed athttp://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/m2006/teams/willr3/const.htm on 9 August 2010.280 See Jorge Zaverucha, Jorge, “The 1988 Brazilian Constitution and Its AuthoritarianLegacy: Formalizing Democracy While Gutting Its Essence”, Journal of Third WorldStudies, XV, No.1 (1998).281 Ronald M. Schneider, Brazil: Foreign Policy of a Future World Power (Boulder:Westview Special Studies on Latin America, 1976): 2.127
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To my parents, Christopher and Vali
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSNothing that preced
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LIST OF SIGNIFICANT ACRONYMS AND AB
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PTRDPSACPSADCSPLMSWAPOUNCTADUNMIHUN
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Chapter 7 The New Internationalists
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Chapter 1: Introduction1.1. Context
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overwhelmingly, yet not completely,
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Hence, shifts in the international
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antipathy of the IR literature to a
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frowned upon by developed and devel
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identify cases - and these were num
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politics and political lobbying. Th
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This is followed by the presentatio
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emerging powers Brazil, Russia, Ind
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decades. More a collection of works
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exercised more frequently, where th
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The role of left-leaning political
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outcomes? Which instruments have th
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percent. 56 In South Africa, Blacks
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Brazil, because in engaging in this
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which domestic institutional arrang
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Chapter 2: Internationalism in the
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potentially providing indications o
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and most important, that these two
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According to Goldmann, internationa
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granted that states will always hav
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transformation in the anarchical in
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2.2.3 Post-Cold WarThe immediate af
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emains a rallying cry in contempora
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their stress on peaceful settlement
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epresentation; and peaceful mechani
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experienced international marginali
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colonial state. 136 The commitment
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Page 90 and 91: Systemic Constraints :AnarchyRelati
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Page 102 and 103: The neoclassical realist framework
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Page 106 and 107: practicable and analytically releva
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Page 114 and 115: While this figure is small in globa
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Page 118 and 119: The party’s commitment to the pro
Page 120 and 121: 2. Strengthening of South-South Co-
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Page 136 and 137: 4.2.3. International OutlookBrazil
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Page 144 and 145: missions and disaster relief. Yet,
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Page 148 and 149: electoral system. The following sec
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Page 156 and 157: ecognised as the ‘sole legitimate
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Page 170 and 171: Thabo Mbeki was frequently lampoone
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Page 174 and 175: At the helm of DFA were two individ
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policy. One, which is less signific
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Globally, the United States and its
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South Africa under Mbeki had decide
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his support for Mugabe against the
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on Participation in International P
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(FOCAC) Conference in November. The
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Mbeki’s last full year in office,
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190
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international norms and regimes. 45
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of Brazil. In this discussion, Braz
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This period came to an end during t
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This dilemma - the choice between c
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on so-called ‘cultural diplomacy
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exchange rate movements and the cap
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and conflict resolution under the W
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Brazil’s military capabilities ar
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shifts in its approach to Brazil’
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een required of PT as a party of th
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A number of scholars are agreed tha
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leader…espousing a populist polit
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foreign policy document, it was the
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election campaign, a rarity for a f
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alumni, have been the subject of mu
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6.5. Criticism from other political
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- the 2001 attacks on the United St
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Middle East, but they also appeared
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limitations on its capacities for w
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São Tomé and Principe, Ethiopia a
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emphasised the principle of non-int
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US$180 bn, compared to US$85 bn the
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underscored by increased military s
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country enjoyed, and by the apparen
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Chapter 7: The New Internationalist
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from their repeatedly-stated commit
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On this occasion the force was able
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Instead, France and the US were mor
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and groups in their efforts to prom
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to the leader of the Parliamentary
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Aristide’s birthday, our people w
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7.4. Brazil’s strategy on Haiti:
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taken by two branches of the armed
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esolutions). 664 A primary example
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However, Haiti was not merely a hum
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to share its experiences of securin
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giving near-automatic assent to the
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• Universalism, and• Internatio
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A prominent official discourse on t
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so this was an issue area that was
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Part III: Thematic Discussion and C
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Chapter 8: Neoclassical Realism, In
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policymaking elites of these states
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commitments have a substantial impa
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The resulting statement that the fi
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In South Africa, the intervening va
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liberation movement, has assumed mo
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South Africa expanded its engagemen
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more pragmatic, without losing sigh
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at the unit-level, where the state
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falls short of capturing the full g
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a political or material nature, in
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It is also plausible to expect that
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national capabilities and therewith
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300
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Appendix 1: Brazilian Presidents si
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1910: Formation of the Union of Sou
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2004: ANC wins landslide election v
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1960: Jânio Quadro is elected pres
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Renan Calheiros, speaker of the Sen
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31 May 2004: Jean-Bertrand Aristide
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SeptemberOctoberNovemberDecemberMap
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OctoberNovemberDecember11: South Af
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JuneJuly23: South Africa participat
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OctoberNovemberreadiness for South
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FebruaryMarchSouth Africa establish
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June 2006, legislative andmunicipal
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FebruaryKuwaiti deputy premier visi
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Appendix 6: Selected Brazilian Inte
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agreement proposed by theUSA to gra
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in Iran.2004JanuaryLula visits Indi
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Brazil is successful in its cottond
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Brazil opens Consulates-General in
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and MINUSTAH authorities.OctoberNov
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Maythe installation ofEMPBRAPA’s
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Honduras and Nicaragua withthe Inte
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NovemberLula requests Minister Amor
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AprilMayJuneJulyand the Palestinian
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REFERENCESList of InterviewsBrazilL
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______, Sally Morphet and Marco Ant
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______. 2004. “Aristide arrives i
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______, Jacqueline Anne. 2003. “C
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Connors, Michael E. Connors. 2005.
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contributors). 1986. How Foreign Po
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Glenn, John. 2009. “Realism versu
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Hirst, Monica. 2009. “South Ameri
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Jönsson, Christer. 2002. “Chapte
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Lipton, Merle. 2009. “Understandi
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______. 2004. “State of the Natio
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International Studies Convention, L
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Pfister, Roger. 2003. “Gateway to
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Samuels, David. 2004. “From Socia
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______. 2003. “Culture(s) of the
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UOL Notícias. 2009. “Celso Amori
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World Bank. 2009. Gross Domestic Pr
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