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the executive (i.e. Lead ministries) – in other words, the state structure (to bediscussed in Chapter 4).The role of leadership should not be overshadowed by a general account of how theexecutive manages power in systems where governmental power is divided betweenvarious branches. Leadership is a distinct aspect of foreign policymaking inintermediate states. This is because individuals become more important to thepolicymaking process in the presence of three enabling factors:- when they enjoy a concentration of power;- when systemic, domestic and bureaucratic forces are in conflict or areambiguous; and,- in conditions of change or fluidity, because of their ability to act moredecisively than large bureaucracies. 184“Where there is “uncertainty” about threats and how to deal with them,governments’ responses will depend upon how leaders perceive and interpret thethreats based on their own belief systems”. 185 Leaders, no matter the extent towhich policymaking is concentrated in one individual, should be placed within theirdomestic political context, in order to gauge their latitude of action and the extentof the support they enjoy for international engagements.A number of studies have assessed the role of political parties in foreignpolicymaking. 186 While the roles of opposition political parties generally have beenassessed in terms of their nuisance potential in the implementation of foreignpolicy, the specific contributions – whether ideological or otherwise – made bygoverning parties have not been the subject of much FPA research. Nor has therebeen, generally speaking, the recognition of the possibility of governing parties184 Byman and Pollack, “Bringing the Statesman Back In”, 141-142.185 Hagan, “Does Decision-Making Matter?”, 11.186 A selection includes: W.E. Paterson, “Political parties and the making of foreignpolicy: the case of the Federal Republic”, Review of International Studies, 7, No.4(1981); Brian C. Rathbun, “Plus Jamais La Guerre? Les partis et la normalisation de lapolitique étrangère de l’Allemagne”, Critique internationale, 25, No.2 (2004); JulietKaarbo, “Power and influence in foreign policy decision making: The role of juniorcoalition partners in German and Israeli foreign policy”, International Studies Quarterly,40, No.4 (1996).94