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Middle East, but they also appeared more threatening because of Brazil’s and theregion’s economic situation, and the consequent social dislocations and theirpolitical repercussions. This, in turn, led to a significant militarization of US policyin Latin America – although with a focus “narrowly targeted at particularly troublingor urgent situations” 570 – a potential power vacuum in the region that neorealisttheory would predict that Brazil, as a pretender to regional hegemony, howevermuted, would seek to fill.PT entered power on a triumphant wave, with Lula securing 61.3% of the popularvote in a second-round run-off with PSDB candidate José Serra. Da Silva’s election,and the rise to power of the party of the workers, PT, was described as “aparadigmatic change in the social, economic and political panoramas of Brazil”. 571Indeed, it was the first time in Brazil’s history that a party of the Left 572 had beenvoted into power, after a history of reversals in Brazil; and the first time that a rankoutsider from the traditional political elite was elected president. The notedBrazilian sociologist Darcy Ribeiro had noted how Brazilian history comprised acontinuous battle between the elites and the poor, with even the 1964 coup aproduct of elite trepidation over the possible consequences of Quadros andGoulart’s populist policies. 573 While Lula’s victory was resounding, the capacity ofthe Party to give effect to long-held foreign policy principles was limited both bythe institutional handicaps imposed by its comparative weakness in the legislature;initially slow economic growth; an uncertain relationship with the military; as well asthe party’s own weakness in the foreign policymaking domain.Lula’s first term started off in an understated fashion, when considered in the lightof his resounding victory in the second-round run-off presidential vote.570 Peter Hakim, “Is Washington Losing Latin America?”, Foreign Affairs, 85, No.1 (Jan-Feb, 2006): 39.571 Almeida, “A Política Internacional do PT”, 87.572 Lula was not the first leftist President of Brazil, however. The presidency of JoãoGoulart in 1961 was associated with the interests of the left. Yet, he was not voted intopower, and his accession to the presidency after the resignation of his predecessor,Jânio Quadro, mobilised massive opposition from the military, and political quarters. SeeLeslie Bethell, “Chapter 2: Politics in Brazil under the Liberal Republic, 1945-1964”, inThe Cambridge History of Latin America: Volume 9, Brazil since 1930, ed., LeslieBethell, Leslie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008): 139-140.573 Darcy Ribeiro, The Brazilian People [O Povo Brasileiro]. Translated by GregoryRabassa. (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2000).This theme has been aleitmotif in Brazilian history and society, also famously dissected in sociologist GilbertoFreyre’s The Masters and the Slaves.226
Institutionally, PT’s hand was weakened in the policy realm, in spite of it becomingthe largest party in the Chamber of Deputies (Lower House), with 91 seats out of apossible 513. In the Senate (Upper House), it obtained 14 seats out of a possible 81.It still needed to form alliances with the centrist parties in order to attain itslegislative goals. Furthermore, PT only won the governorships of 3 minor states:Piaui, Acre and Mato Grosso do Sul.The Brazilian political system, while characterised by party fragmentation and weakparty discipline, was by Lula’s 2002 presidential victory otherwise beginning to showsigns of consolidation and institutionalisation. 574 In one of its first measures ingovernment, PT established the Conselho de Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social(CDES)(Council for Economic and Social Development) in 2003. This body wouldserve as a consultative organ of the Presidency and civil society, and at the sametime as an institutionalised channel of negotiations of pacts between different socialactors and the government, on the agenda of economic, political and socialreform. 575 It was initially criticised for the preponderance of PT members among itsnumber.In terms of economic policy, PT’s hands were tied by undertakings the party hadmade to the Brazilian people (in Lula’s Carta ao Povo Brasileiro) 576 and to theinternational financial community prior to taking power, along with agreementssigned with the IMF by Cardoso in the closing months of his tenure. 577 Brazilwould be committed to a medium-term framework in terms of which IMFfinancing of $30bn was secured by the Cardoso government during its last days. 578This framework committed the incoming administration to, amongst others, fiscaldiscipline, a floating exchange rate and inflation targeting. This was highly restrictiveto any structural changes mooted by PT in its election manifesto, and placed major574 Hunter, “The Normalization of an Anomaly”, 457. See also Panizza, “BoringCountry?”.575 Sonia Fleury, ‘O conselho de desenvolvimento economico e social do governo Lula’.(2006).576 Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, “Carta Ao Povo Brasileiro”, São Paulo, 22 June 2002.Accessed online at: http://www2.fpa.org.br/carta-ao-povo-brasileiro-por-luiz-inacio-lulada-silvaon 6 June, 2011.577 Wendy Hunter and Timothy J. Power, “Lula’s Brazil at Midterm”, Journal ofDemocracy, 16, No.3, 2005:129.578 The Guardian, “Brazil’s currency soars after IMF lifeline”, 8 August, 2002. Accessedonline at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/2002/aug/08/globalrecession2 on 3March, 2011.227
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To my parents, Christopher and Vali
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSNothing that preced
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LIST OF SIGNIFICANT ACRONYMS AND AB
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PTRDPSACPSADCSPLMSWAPOUNCTADUNMIHUN
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Chapter 7 The New Internationalists
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Chapter 1: Introduction1.1. Context
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overwhelmingly, yet not completely,
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Hence, shifts in the international
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antipathy of the IR literature to a
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frowned upon by developed and devel
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identify cases - and these were num
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politics and political lobbying. Th
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This is followed by the presentatio
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emerging powers Brazil, Russia, Ind
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decades. More a collection of works
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exercised more frequently, where th
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The role of left-leaning political
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outcomes? Which instruments have th
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percent. 56 In South Africa, Blacks
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Brazil, because in engaging in this
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which domestic institutional arrang
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Chapter 2: Internationalism in the
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potentially providing indications o
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and most important, that these two
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According to Goldmann, internationa
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granted that states will always hav
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transformation in the anarchical in
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2.2.3 Post-Cold WarThe immediate af
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emains a rallying cry in contempora
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their stress on peaceful settlement
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epresentation; and peaceful mechani
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experienced international marginali
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colonial state. 136 The commitment
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dominant nations which may hope to
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domestic welfare arrangements and f
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foreign policy. The latter include
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adjust to shifts in their internati
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to seemingly altruistic or ‘ethic
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ethics may underpin the same foreig
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As noted by Taliaferro, however, ne
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Systemic Constraints :AnarchyRelati
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Neorealism’s emphasis on the syst
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the executive (i.e. Lead ministries
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individuals - located at the “int
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argument, and rational cost-benefit
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nature of interim or transitional g
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The neoclassical realist framework
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104
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practicable and analytically releva
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(CUT), the main trade union confede
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These incipient foreign policy prin
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each province, consisting of 10 del
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While this figure is small in globa
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mercantilist’, 238 or ‘revoluti
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The party’s commitment to the pro
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2. Strengthening of South-South Co-
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Some of South Africa’s accomplish
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slavery. Even Brazil’s participat
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that was seen to be experiencing a
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The Presidency makes foreign policy
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and socialisation practices, as wel
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members were negotiated. 296 Recent
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President Lula’s second and last
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4.2.3. International OutlookBrazil
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linguistic distinction from its Spa
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welfare measures. The party’s rel
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142
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missions and disaster relief. Yet,
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international orientation. Most of
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electoral system. The following sec
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identity changed as the challenges
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to the United States, with the atte
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eforms undertaken in the mid-1980s.
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ecognised as the ‘sole legitimate
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whole world. ANC solidarity was not
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1994, 370 placing tangible limits o
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The organisation’s main shortcomi
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Much of Mandela’s tenure as Presi
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with more wealthy donors in the Glo
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complicates the task of separating
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Thabo Mbeki was frequently lampoone
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the social-democratic Reconstructio
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At the helm of DFA were two individ
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Page 178 and 179: Globally, the United States and its
Page 180 and 181: South Africa under Mbeki had decide
Page 182 and 183: his support for Mugabe against the
Page 184 and 185: on Participation in International P
Page 186 and 187: (FOCAC) Conference in November. The
Page 188 and 189: Mbeki’s last full year in office,
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Page 192 and 193: international norms and regimes. 45
Page 194 and 195: of Brazil. In this discussion, Braz
Page 196 and 197: This period came to an end during t
Page 198 and 199: This dilemma - the choice between c
Page 200 and 201: on so-called ‘cultural diplomacy
Page 202 and 203: exchange rate movements and the cap
Page 204 and 205: and conflict resolution under the W
Page 206 and 207: Brazil’s military capabilities ar
Page 208 and 209: shifts in its approach to Brazil’
Page 210 and 211: een required of PT as a party of th
Page 212 and 213: A number of scholars are agreed tha
Page 214 and 215: leader…espousing a populist polit
Page 216 and 217: foreign policy document, it was the
Page 218 and 219: election campaign, a rarity for a f
Page 220 and 221: alumni, have been the subject of mu
Page 222 and 223: 6.5. Criticism from other political
Page 224 and 225: - the 2001 attacks on the United St
Page 228 and 229: limitations on its capacities for w
Page 230 and 231: São Tomé and Principe, Ethiopia a
Page 232 and 233: emphasised the principle of non-int
Page 234 and 235: US$180 bn, compared to US$85 bn the
Page 236 and 237: underscored by increased military s
Page 238 and 239: country enjoyed, and by the apparen
Page 240 and 241: Chapter 7: The New Internationalist
Page 242 and 243: from their repeatedly-stated commit
Page 244 and 245: On this occasion the force was able
Page 246 and 247: Instead, France and the US were mor
Page 248 and 249: and groups in their efforts to prom
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Page 252 and 253: Aristide’s birthday, our people w
Page 254 and 255: 7.4. Brazil’s strategy on Haiti:
Page 256 and 257: taken by two branches of the armed
Page 258 and 259: esolutions). 664 A primary example
Page 260 and 261: However, Haiti was not merely a hum
Page 262 and 263: to share its experiences of securin
Page 264 and 265: giving near-automatic assent to the
Page 266 and 267: • Universalism, and• Internatio
Page 268 and 269: A prominent official discourse on t
Page 270 and 271: so this was an issue area that was
Page 272 and 273: Part III: Thematic Discussion and C
Page 274 and 275: Chapter 8: Neoclassical Realism, In
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policymaking elites of these states
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commitments have a substantial impa
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The resulting statement that the fi
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In South Africa, the intervening va
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liberation movement, has assumed mo
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South Africa expanded its engagemen
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more pragmatic, without losing sigh
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at the unit-level, where the state
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falls short of capturing the full g
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a political or material nature, in
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It is also plausible to expect that
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national capabilities and therewith
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300
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Appendix 1: Brazilian Presidents si
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1910: Formation of the Union of Sou
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2004: ANC wins landslide election v
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1960: Jânio Quadro is elected pres
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Renan Calheiros, speaker of the Sen
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31 May 2004: Jean-Bertrand Aristide
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SeptemberOctoberNovemberDecemberMap
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OctoberNovemberDecember11: South Af
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JuneJuly23: South Africa participat
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OctoberNovemberreadiness for South
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FebruaryMarchSouth Africa establish
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June 2006, legislative andmunicipal
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FebruaryKuwaiti deputy premier visi
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Appendix 6: Selected Brazilian Inte
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agreement proposed by theUSA to gra
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in Iran.2004JanuaryLula visits Indi
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Brazil is successful in its cottond
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Brazil opens Consulates-General in
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and MINUSTAH authorities.OctoberNov
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Maythe installation ofEMPBRAPA’s
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Honduras and Nicaragua withthe Inte
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NovemberLula requests Minister Amor
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AprilMayJuneJulyand the Palestinian
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REFERENCESList of InterviewsBrazilL
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______, Sally Morphet and Marco Ant
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______. 2004. “Aristide arrives i
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______, Jacqueline Anne. 2003. “C
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Connors, Michael E. Connors. 2005.
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contributors). 1986. How Foreign Po
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Glenn, John. 2009. “Realism versu
Page 362 and 363:
Hirst, Monica. 2009. “South Ameri
Page 364 and 365:
Jönsson, Christer. 2002. “Chapte
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Lipton, Merle. 2009. “Understandi
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______. 2004. “State of the Natio
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International Studies Convention, L
Page 372 and 373:
Pfister, Roger. 2003. “Gateway to
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Samuels, David. 2004. “From Socia
Page 376 and 377:
______. 2003. “Culture(s) of the
Page 378 and 379:
UOL Notícias. 2009. “Celso Amori
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World Bank. 2009. Gross Domestic Pr
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