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policy. One, which is less significant from the Party perspective, is the oppositionfrom those outside the tripartite alliance. This strand of opposition includes, but isnot limited to, the parliamentary opposition, which is led by the DemocraticAlliance (DA), a right-of-centre political assemblage of traditionally-white, middleclass opposition to the ANC. It can, however, “trace its lineage through a liberaltradition of parliamentary opposition to apartheid”. 416 One of its progenitors, theLiberal Party of South Africa, was headed by the esteemed politician, HelenSuzman.In August 2007, the DA leader, Tony Leon, lamented the loss of South Africa’s‘reputation as an international moral beacon’. 417 This was evident, he claimed, inSouth Africa’s ‘misplaced solidarity’ with governments such as those of Cuba andIraq; and also in the South African government’s unhappy record on Zimbabwe.However, by this time, the ANC, and Thabo Mbeki in particular, had become quiteimpervious to the criticisms of the media and the parliamentary opposition.Contrast this with a time, at the height of the Abacha crisis in Nigeria underMandela, when the government switched policy to take a tougher line against theAbacha regime. Black noted,With domestic critics decrying the apparent naivety and ineffectiveness of its quietdiplomacy, South Africa’s government now became an international hard-liner in thecall for stern punitive measures against the Nigerian regime. 418The second source of opposition emanates from within the tripartite alliance. Whilethis opposition reached its apex on the Zimbabwe issue, its effects were minimal, asthey did not threaten the alliance in any significant sense. COSATU has remained amember of the alliance and as noted earlier, the ANC performed even better insubsequent elections. In direct contravention of government’s ‘quiet diplomacy’ onZimbabwe, COSATU staged a ‘fact-finding’ mission to Zimbabwe in 2004. The416 Tom Lodge and Ursula Scheidegger, “Political Parties and Democratic Governancein South Africa”, Electoral Institute of South Africa Research Report, No.25, AucklandPark (2006): xi.417 Business Day, 22 August 2007, “Leon Pleads for SA’s Moral Compass’, accessedonline at: http://allafrica.com/stories/200708220278.html418 Black, “South Africa confronts Abacha’s Nigeria”, 41.176
trade union federation, in an embarrassing episode for the ANC, was deported fromZimbabwe. 4195.6. Resource Mobilisation and Extraction under Mbeki (1999-2008)Structural contextIn terms of a neoclassical realist analysis, the starting point is a change in relativepower distribution; or at least a perception by decisionmakers of such change. Thestructural environment that greeted Thabo Mbeki’s ascent to power in 1999 wasriven with challenges. Domestically, the economy was attempting a recovery fromthe global financial crisis of 1998, inflation stood at around 8 percent, and thecountry had endured its first experience of the vagaries of the international capitalmarkets, as R42 billion in investment capital (inflows and outflows) changed handsover 7 months in 1998. 420 Politically, Mbeki had just won a resounding mandate asPresident of the ANC at the organisation’s National Conference of 1997.Meanwhile, US President Bill Clinton had, in April 1998, completed the first Africantour by a sitting US President for 20 years. The visit was aimed at promoting theAfrica Growth and Opportunity Bill, a trade facilitation policy for African states toenjoy preferential treatment in the US market; and democratisation on thecontinent. 421 Nigeria, one of Africa’s largest states and a competitor with SouthAfrica for continental leadership, was in the throes of post-Abacha reconstruction,and Uganda, another potential rival, was engaged in talks aimed at resolving itsdomestic conflict with the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA). South Africa’s immediateneighbourhood was simmering in the aftermath of the Lesotho crisis, which sawSouth Africa intervene in the neighbouring state under the auspices of the SouthernAfrican Development Community (SADC) to support the government of PakalithaMosilili in September 1998, resulting in the deaths of some 130.419 Karima Brown, “Cosatu, ANC yet to discuss Zim row debacle”, Independent Online.November 1, 2004. Accessed online at: http://www.iol.co.za/news/politics/cosatu-ancyet-to-discuss-zim-row-debacle-1.225677on 5 September, 2011.420 Chris Stals, Speech at the 52 nd Congress of the South African Nurserymen’sAssociation, Johannesburg, 17 May, 1999. Accessed at:http://www.bis.org/review/r990519a.pdf on 9 May, 2011.421 BBC News. 1998. “Clinton starts African tour”, Monday March 23, 1998. Accessedonline at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/62091.stm177
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To my parents, Christopher and Vali
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSNothing that preced
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LIST OF SIGNIFICANT ACRONYMS AND AB
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PTRDPSACPSADCSPLMSWAPOUNCTADUNMIHUN
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Chapter 7 The New Internationalists
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Chapter 1: Introduction1.1. Context
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overwhelmingly, yet not completely,
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Hence, shifts in the international
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antipathy of the IR literature to a
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frowned upon by developed and devel
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identify cases - and these were num
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politics and political lobbying. Th
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This is followed by the presentatio
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emerging powers Brazil, Russia, Ind
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decades. More a collection of works
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exercised more frequently, where th
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The role of left-leaning political
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outcomes? Which instruments have th
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percent. 56 In South Africa, Blacks
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Brazil, because in engaging in this
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which domestic institutional arrang
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Chapter 2: Internationalism in the
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potentially providing indications o
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and most important, that these two
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According to Goldmann, internationa
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granted that states will always hav
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transformation in the anarchical in
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2.2.3 Post-Cold WarThe immediate af
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emains a rallying cry in contempora
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their stress on peaceful settlement
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epresentation; and peaceful mechani
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experienced international marginali
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colonial state. 136 The commitment
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dominant nations which may hope to
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domestic welfare arrangements and f
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foreign policy. The latter include
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adjust to shifts in their internati
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to seemingly altruistic or ‘ethic
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ethics may underpin the same foreig
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As noted by Taliaferro, however, ne
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Systemic Constraints :AnarchyRelati
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Neorealism’s emphasis on the syst
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the executive (i.e. Lead ministries
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individuals - located at the “int
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argument, and rational cost-benefit
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nature of interim or transitional g
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The neoclassical realist framework
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104
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practicable and analytically releva
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(CUT), the main trade union confede
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These incipient foreign policy prin
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each province, consisting of 10 del
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While this figure is small in globa
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mercantilist’, 238 or ‘revoluti
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The party’s commitment to the pro
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2. Strengthening of South-South Co-
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Some of South Africa’s accomplish
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slavery. Even Brazil’s participat
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Page 132 and 133: members were negotiated. 296 Recent
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Page 136 and 137: 4.2.3. International OutlookBrazil
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Page 140 and 141: welfare measures. The party’s rel
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Page 144 and 145: missions and disaster relief. Yet,
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Page 150 and 151: identity changed as the challenges
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Page 156 and 157: ecognised as the ‘sole legitimate
Page 158 and 159: whole world. ANC solidarity was not
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Page 166 and 167: with more wealthy donors in the Glo
Page 168 and 169: complicates the task of separating
Page 170 and 171: Thabo Mbeki was frequently lampoone
Page 172 and 173: the social-democratic Reconstructio
Page 174 and 175: At the helm of DFA were two individ
Page 178 and 179: Globally, the United States and its
Page 180 and 181: South Africa under Mbeki had decide
Page 182 and 183: his support for Mugabe against the
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Page 186 and 187: (FOCAC) Conference in November. The
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Page 192 and 193: international norms and regimes. 45
Page 194 and 195: of Brazil. In this discussion, Braz
Page 196 and 197: This period came to an end during t
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Page 208 and 209: shifts in its approach to Brazil’
Page 210 and 211: een required of PT as a party of th
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Page 218 and 219: election campaign, a rarity for a f
Page 220 and 221: alumni, have been the subject of mu
Page 222 and 223: 6.5. Criticism from other political
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Middle East, but they also appeared
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limitations on its capacities for w
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São Tomé and Principe, Ethiopia a
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emphasised the principle of non-int
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US$180 bn, compared to US$85 bn the
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underscored by increased military s
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country enjoyed, and by the apparen
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Chapter 7: The New Internationalist
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from their repeatedly-stated commit
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On this occasion the force was able
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Instead, France and the US were mor
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and groups in their efforts to prom
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to the leader of the Parliamentary
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Aristide’s birthday, our people w
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7.4. Brazil’s strategy on Haiti:
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taken by two branches of the armed
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esolutions). 664 A primary example
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However, Haiti was not merely a hum
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to share its experiences of securin
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giving near-automatic assent to the
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• Universalism, and• Internatio
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A prominent official discourse on t
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so this was an issue area that was
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Part III: Thematic Discussion and C
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Chapter 8: Neoclassical Realism, In
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policymaking elites of these states
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commitments have a substantial impa
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The resulting statement that the fi
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In South Africa, the intervening va
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liberation movement, has assumed mo
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South Africa expanded its engagemen
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more pragmatic, without losing sigh
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at the unit-level, where the state
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falls short of capturing the full g
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a political or material nature, in
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It is also plausible to expect that
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national capabilities and therewith
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300
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Appendix 1: Brazilian Presidents si
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1910: Formation of the Union of Sou
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2004: ANC wins landslide election v
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1960: Jânio Quadro is elected pres
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Renan Calheiros, speaker of the Sen
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31 May 2004: Jean-Bertrand Aristide
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SeptemberOctoberNovemberDecemberMap
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OctoberNovemberDecember11: South Af
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JuneJuly23: South Africa participat
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OctoberNovemberreadiness for South
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FebruaryMarchSouth Africa establish
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June 2006, legislative andmunicipal
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FebruaryKuwaiti deputy premier visi
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Appendix 6: Selected Brazilian Inte
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agreement proposed by theUSA to gra
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in Iran.2004JanuaryLula visits Indi
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Brazil is successful in its cottond
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Brazil opens Consulates-General in
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and MINUSTAH authorities.OctoberNov
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Maythe installation ofEMPBRAPA’s
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Honduras and Nicaragua withthe Inte
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NovemberLula requests Minister Amor
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AprilMayJuneJulyand the Palestinian
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REFERENCESList of InterviewsBrazilL
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______, Sally Morphet and Marco Ant
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______. 2004. “Aristide arrives i
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______, Jacqueline Anne. 2003. “C
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Connors, Michael E. Connors. 2005.
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contributors). 1986. How Foreign Po
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Glenn, John. 2009. “Realism versu
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Hirst, Monica. 2009. “South Ameri
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Jönsson, Christer. 2002. “Chapte
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Lipton, Merle. 2009. “Understandi
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______. 2004. “State of the Natio
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International Studies Convention, L
Page 372 and 373:
Pfister, Roger. 2003. “Gateway to
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Samuels, David. 2004. “From Socia
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______. 2003. “Culture(s) of the
Page 378 and 379:
UOL Notícias. 2009. “Celso Amori
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World Bank. 2009. Gross Domestic Pr
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