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Chapter 7: The New Internationalists? South Africa,Brazil, MINUSTAH and the exile of Jean-BertrandAristide“Maybe our media and opposition will ask again how much does it cost, who is going to pay and what is in it for us.For us, the saving of lives, stopping wars and contributing towards peace, democracy, human rights and developmentcannot be reduced simply to rands and cents. What is in it, for us, is peace.”South African Foreign Minister, Nkosazana Dlamini Zuma, on South Africa’s participation inpeacekeeping in Burundi. 606“Quem defende novos paradigmas nas relações internacionais, não poderia omitir-se diante de uma situaçãoconcreta. 607 ”Lula da Silva, Speech at the 49 th General Assembly, 21 September, 2004, in reference to Brazil’sparticipation in Haiti.IntroductionSouth Africa and Brazil represent two prominent examples of Southern statesembarking on internationalist foreign policies, whether for structural or unit-levelreasons, or a combination of both. In this chapter an examination of a case ofinternational crisis in which both states were involved provides a unique test case ofeach of their actions and their motivations, where it has been possible to uncoverthese. Haiti represents a ‘turning-point’ decision for each country, in the sense thatit required the allocation of resources – military, political, and economic - to aninternational issue. A turning point decision, as noted in Chapter 1, is distinct froma state’s general objectives and verbal strategies; and, routine actions conducted by astate’s diplomatic machinery.The case of state failure in Haiti, and the measures taken by South Africa and Brazil,are examined to shed light on their motivations and capacities in an area in whichneither can be said to have had pressing national interests. What is at stake in theirrespective responses to the crisis? What can neoclassical realism tell us about it?Haiti represents a significant opportunity for the appraisal of internationalism in theforeign policies of South Africa and Brazil. This is because it involves another‘Southern’ or developing state; assistance required the choice of sides in the conflict,606 Department of Foreign Affairs, 2004. Budget Speech, p13.607 “Whoever seeks to defend new paradigms in international relations, cannot shy awaywhen faced with a concrete situation”. Author’s translation.240
along with forms of external intervention; as well as a choice on their respectivestances on the promotion of democracy and non-interference.While the crisis in Haiti has been referenced frequently in terms of its domesticdimensions, the aspects of relevance to International Relations have seldom beenhighlighted, 608 and this will form part of the contribution of this chapter. It isimportant to note that the MINUSTAH mission, due to the novelty of its mandate(relating to multidisciplinary or ‘second-generation’ peacekeeping) and thecircumstances under which it was approved and deployed, has been contested fromthe start, and the subject of polemical debate in the peacekeeping and internationalhuman rights literature. 609 The focus of this chapter is the foreign policy formulationdimension of specifically the involvement of South Africa and Brazil, 610 as twostates seeking to portray an internationalist posture in their foreign relations.The present chapter revolves around the crisis wrought by the deposing of thedemocratically-elected government of Jean-Bertrand Aristide in 2004, and itsinternational implications. This crisis had been at least a decade in the making. Itultimately saw two very different modes of Southern engagement deployed. SouthAfrica displayed solidarity with Jean-Bertrand Aristide, first through the attendanceof the bicentennial celebrations of the Haitian Revolution by President ThaboMbeki, and second, by offering exile to Aristide upon his ouster in 2004. Brazilassumed the leadership of the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti(MINUSTAH), relaxing longstanding terms of its engagement in UN missions inorder to lead the mission.This case is selected for a number of reasons. It represented a turning point in theforeign policies of both South Africa and Brazil, under Mbeki and Lula, respectively.For both countries, it was a decided turn away – though not an isolated instance -608 For an exception, see von Einsiedel and Malone, “Peace and Democracy for Haiti?”.609 See Matt Halling and Blaine Bookey, “Peacekeeping in Name Alone: Accountabilityfor the United Nations in Haiti”, Hastings International and Comparative Law Review,461 (2008): 461-486; Jennifer Peirce, “Protection for Whom? Stabilization and CoerciveRule in Haiti”, Paterson Review, 8 (2007); Todd Howland, “Peacekeeping andConformity with Human Rights Law: How MINUSTAH Falls Short in Haiti”, InternationalPeacekeeping, 13, No. 4 (2006): 462-476.610 Nineteen states have contributed troops to the MINUSTAH mission under theleadership of Brazil. Fifty-one states have contributed police personnel. See MINUSTAHwebsite.241
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To my parents, Christopher and Vali
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSNothing that preced
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LIST OF SIGNIFICANT ACRONYMS AND AB
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PTRDPSACPSADCSPLMSWAPOUNCTADUNMIHUN
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Chapter 7 The New Internationalists
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Chapter 1: Introduction1.1. Context
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overwhelmingly, yet not completely,
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Hence, shifts in the international
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antipathy of the IR literature to a
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frowned upon by developed and devel
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identify cases - and these were num
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politics and political lobbying. Th
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This is followed by the presentatio
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emerging powers Brazil, Russia, Ind
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decades. More a collection of works
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exercised more frequently, where th
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The role of left-leaning political
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outcomes? Which instruments have th
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percent. 56 In South Africa, Blacks
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Brazil, because in engaging in this
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which domestic institutional arrang
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Chapter 2: Internationalism in the
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potentially providing indications o
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and most important, that these two
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According to Goldmann, internationa
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granted that states will always hav
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transformation in the anarchical in
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2.2.3 Post-Cold WarThe immediate af
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emains a rallying cry in contempora
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their stress on peaceful settlement
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epresentation; and peaceful mechani
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experienced international marginali
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colonial state. 136 The commitment
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dominant nations which may hope to
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domestic welfare arrangements and f
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foreign policy. The latter include
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adjust to shifts in their internati
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to seemingly altruistic or ‘ethic
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ethics may underpin the same foreig
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As noted by Taliaferro, however, ne
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Systemic Constraints :AnarchyRelati
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Neorealism’s emphasis on the syst
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the executive (i.e. Lead ministries
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individuals - located at the “int
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argument, and rational cost-benefit
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nature of interim or transitional g
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The neoclassical realist framework
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104
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practicable and analytically releva
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(CUT), the main trade union confede
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These incipient foreign policy prin
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each province, consisting of 10 del
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While this figure is small in globa
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mercantilist’, 238 or ‘revoluti
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The party’s commitment to the pro
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2. Strengthening of South-South Co-
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Some of South Africa’s accomplish
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slavery. Even Brazil’s participat
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that was seen to be experiencing a
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The Presidency makes foreign policy
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and socialisation practices, as wel
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members were negotiated. 296 Recent
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President Lula’s second and last
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4.2.3. International OutlookBrazil
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linguistic distinction from its Spa
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welfare measures. The party’s rel
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142
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missions and disaster relief. Yet,
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international orientation. Most of
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electoral system. The following sec
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identity changed as the challenges
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to the United States, with the atte
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eforms undertaken in the mid-1980s.
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ecognised as the ‘sole legitimate
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whole world. ANC solidarity was not
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1994, 370 placing tangible limits o
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The organisation’s main shortcomi
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Much of Mandela’s tenure as Presi
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with more wealthy donors in the Glo
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complicates the task of separating
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Thabo Mbeki was frequently lampoone
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the social-democratic Reconstructio
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At the helm of DFA were two individ
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policy. One, which is less signific
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Globally, the United States and its
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South Africa under Mbeki had decide
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his support for Mugabe against the
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on Participation in International P
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(FOCAC) Conference in November. The
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Mbeki’s last full year in office,
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Page 192 and 193: international norms and regimes. 45
Page 194 and 195: of Brazil. In this discussion, Braz
Page 196 and 197: This period came to an end during t
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Page 208 and 209: shifts in its approach to Brazil’
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Page 214 and 215: leader…espousing a populist polit
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Page 218 and 219: election campaign, a rarity for a f
Page 220 and 221: alumni, have been the subject of mu
Page 222 and 223: 6.5. Criticism from other political
Page 224 and 225: - the 2001 attacks on the United St
Page 226 and 227: Middle East, but they also appeared
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Page 230 and 231: São Tomé and Principe, Ethiopia a
Page 232 and 233: emphasised the principle of non-int
Page 234 and 235: US$180 bn, compared to US$85 bn the
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Page 244 and 245: On this occasion the force was able
Page 246 and 247: Instead, France and the US were mor
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Page 252 and 253: Aristide’s birthday, our people w
Page 254 and 255: 7.4. Brazil’s strategy on Haiti:
Page 256 and 257: taken by two branches of the armed
Page 258 and 259: esolutions). 664 A primary example
Page 260 and 261: However, Haiti was not merely a hum
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Page 264 and 265: giving near-automatic assent to the
Page 266 and 267: • Universalism, and• Internatio
Page 268 and 269: A prominent official discourse on t
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Page 272 and 273: Part III: Thematic Discussion and C
Page 274 and 275: Chapter 8: Neoclassical Realism, In
Page 276 and 277: policymaking elites of these states
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Page 282 and 283: In South Africa, the intervening va
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at the unit-level, where the state
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falls short of capturing the full g
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a political or material nature, in
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It is also plausible to expect that
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national capabilities and therewith
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300
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Appendix 1: Brazilian Presidents si
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1910: Formation of the Union of Sou
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2004: ANC wins landslide election v
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1960: Jânio Quadro is elected pres
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Renan Calheiros, speaker of the Sen
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31 May 2004: Jean-Bertrand Aristide
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SeptemberOctoberNovemberDecemberMap
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OctoberNovemberDecember11: South Af
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JuneJuly23: South Africa participat
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OctoberNovemberreadiness for South
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FebruaryMarchSouth Africa establish
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June 2006, legislative andmunicipal
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FebruaryKuwaiti deputy premier visi
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Appendix 6: Selected Brazilian Inte
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agreement proposed by theUSA to gra
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in Iran.2004JanuaryLula visits Indi
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Brazil is successful in its cottond
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Brazil opens Consulates-General in
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and MINUSTAH authorities.OctoberNov
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Maythe installation ofEMPBRAPA’s
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Honduras and Nicaragua withthe Inte
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NovemberLula requests Minister Amor
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AprilMayJuneJulyand the Palestinian
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REFERENCESList of InterviewsBrazilL
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______, Sally Morphet and Marco Ant
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______. 2004. “Aristide arrives i
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______, Jacqueline Anne. 2003. “C
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Connors, Michael E. Connors. 2005.
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contributors). 1986. How Foreign Po
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Glenn, John. 2009. “Realism versu
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Hirst, Monica. 2009. “South Ameri
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Jönsson, Christer. 2002. “Chapte
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Lipton, Merle. 2009. “Understandi
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______. 2004. “State of the Natio
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International Studies Convention, L
Page 372 and 373:
Pfister, Roger. 2003. “Gateway to
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Samuels, David. 2004. “From Socia
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______. 2003. “Culture(s) of the
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UOL Notícias. 2009. “Celso Amori
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World Bank. 2009. Gross Domestic Pr
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