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nations. 467 What emerges from an examination of Brazil’s foreign policy throughoutthe twentieth century is that the ‘departures’ identified as novel in the twenty-firstcentury are really a return of tendencies in Brazilian foreign policy that started toemerge in the 1950s, during the presidency of Juscelino Kubitschek (JK) (1956-1961).During JK’s presidency, a number of large industrial projects were undertaken inBrazil, including the construction of the new capital city, Brasília, in the interior.These public works projects resulted in large balance of payments deficits for Brazil,which JK sought to alleviate by seeking new opportunities for Brazilian commercein overseas markets. This initiated a period of tentative outward expansion forBrazil, especially in the direction of the hitherto neglected continents of Africa andAsia. 468 This was a marked difference from its main foreign policy thrust for thefirst half of the twentieth century, which sought to avoid the uncertainconsequences of action, and preferred a measured ‘inaction’, 469 and focus onestablished Western powers.Brazil’s ‘traditional’, risk-averse mode of conducting its international diplomacy hadmany critics, however. At the ideational level, Brazil’s unquestioning allegiance tothe US was seen as problematic by the new breed of Brazilian nationalists. Also,those who sought more pragmatism and the pursuit of Brazil’s national interestsgrew increasingly frustrated by Itamaraty’s ‘legal-historical’ approach to internationaldiplomacy. At the national socio-economic level, the exigencies of economicdevelopment were placing pressure on the government to seek new outlets forBrazilian commerce. 470 The concepts of ‘National Security’ and ‘Development’became virtually entwined around this time, emphasised by the Doutrina de SegurançaNacional (DSN). This National Security Doctrine, as embellished by the militaryEscola Superior de Guerra (ESG) – the repository of strategic thinking in Brazil –could “be summarised into the “binomial” of security and development”, 471 thathas played a role in the formulation of Brazilian foreign policy guidelines ever since.467 Selcher, The Afro-Asian Dimension, 14.468 Ibid, 80.469 Ibid.470 Ibid., 12-13.471 Kai Michael Kenkel, “New tricks for the dogs of war, or just old w(h)ine in newbottles? - securitisation, defence policy and civilian control in Brazil, 1994-2002”,197