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US$180 bn, compared to US$85 bn the year before. 594 To consolidate and expeditegrowth, the government launched A Programa de Aceleração do Crescimento (PAC,growth-acceleration programme) at the end of January.In the military sphere, the government started to turn its attention to thedevelopment of a defence posture for Brazil. This included Lula’s presidentialdecree of September 2007, calling for the establishment of a Ministerial Committeeto propose a National Strategy of Defence. The drafters of the report were theMinister of Defense, Nelson Jobim, and the Minister Head of the Secretariat forStrategic Affairs of the Presidency, the philosophy professor, Roberto MangabeiraUnger. They noted that, in the context of Brazil’s twenty years under militarydictatorship, from 1964-1985, this act marked an unprecedented insertion ofdefence issues and the organisation of the military onto the national agenda. 595 Untilthen, the military’s role in society was ill-defined, given its historical retention of theprerogative to intervene in politics should conditions necessitate it. Raising the issueto the level of national debate was an achievement in itself, given the customaryreticence of the military on the discussion of any revision of its role in society. 596Among other things, the Strategy report called for “the redefinition of the role ofthe Ministry of Defence and the listing of strategic guidelines related to eachMilitary branch, specifying the relations that should prevail among them”. 597 Thedocument further called for a re-nationalisation of Brazilian defence supplies.Brazilian military expenditure increased steadily from USD17,614m in 2003, toreach USD28,096m by the close of Lula’s second term in 2010. This figure didremain constant as a percentage of GDP, however, varying between 1.5 and 1.6percent over the same period. 598According to Michael Shifter, a vice president of the Inter-American Dialogue, apolicy research group in Washington, speaking at the time,594 World Bank, Data: Brazil, accessed online at :http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/FI.RES.TOTL.CD, on 1 October 2010.595 Ministry of Defense. 2008. National Strategy of Defense: Peace and Security forBrazil. 1 st edition. Brasília: 6.596 Wendy Hunter, “The Brazilian Military after the Cold War: In Search of a Mission”,Studies in Comparative International Development, 28, No.4 (1994): 32.597 Ministry of Defense. 2008. National Strategy of Defense: Peace and Security forBrazil. 1 st Edition. Brasília: 5.598 SIPRI Military Expenditure Database, accessed online at:http://milexdata.sipri.org/result.php4 on 18 April, 2011.234
Brazil’s vision of its military’s role fits well with the country’s growing internationalseriousness and economic and institutional capacity...It is seeking to be a morecohesive national power, and that requires exercising full control over its vastterritory and borders. 599Echoing this opinion, Hurrell states that since 2004, Brazil “has shown a renewedinterest in accelerating and protecting its indigenous technological development andreviving its nuclear energy program”. 600In further indications of Brazil’s growing material power, in January 2008, Brazilbecame a net foreign creditor for the first time. 601 During the Lula presidency, thecountry opened 33 new embassies, 19 new consulates and 5 new permanentmissions to international organizations, including the International Atomic EnergyAgency and the United Nations Human Rights Council, 602 signalling firm monetarycommitments to a more activist role in foreign affairs.Brazil faced a different regional context from that which greeted the inception ofLula’s first term. The election of Evo Morales in neighbouring Bolivia at roughlythe same time as Lula’s re-election resulted in some disquiet in Western capitalsover Latin America’s perceived ‘Left turn’. 603 Brazil’s value as an interlocutorbetween the US and the Leftist governments of Chavez, Morales, and Correa ofEcuador, increased in this environment, giving it more latitude in foreign policy tochallenge the United States on certain strategic issues. At the same time, Brazilianpolicymakers felt the need to make a greater effort to counterbalance the influenceof Venezuela and Chavez’s radical anti-American stance. This need was perhaps599 Alexei Barrionuevo, “President of Brazil Unveils Plan to Upgrade Military in Effort tobe Global Power”, in New York Times, 18 December, 2008. Accessed online at:http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/19/world/americas/19brazil.html, 4 October, 2010.600 Hurrell, 2010: 63.601 Riordan Roett, “How Reform Has Powered Brazil’s Rise”, Current History, 109, Issue724 (February 2010): 51.602 Hurrell, “Brazil and the New Global Order”, 60.603 See Christian Science Monitor, 2006. “Latin America’s Two Left Feet”, November 8,2006. Accessed online at: http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/1108/p08s02-comv.html on 4October 2010; Oliver Stone, 2010. South of the Border. Documentary Film: PentagramaFilms. For scholarly analyses, see Hector E Schamis, et al., “A ‘Left Turn’ in LatinAmerica?”, Journal of Democracy Special Issue (October 2006), 17, No.4; Jorge G.Castañeda, “Latin America’s Left Turn”, Foreign Affairs, (May/June 2006); Special Issueof Third World Quarterly, 2009, Vol. 30, No.2.235
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To my parents, Christopher and Vali
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSNothing that preced
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LIST OF SIGNIFICANT ACRONYMS AND AB
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PTRDPSACPSADCSPLMSWAPOUNCTADUNMIHUN
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Chapter 7 The New Internationalists
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Chapter 1: Introduction1.1. Context
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overwhelmingly, yet not completely,
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Hence, shifts in the international
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antipathy of the IR literature to a
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frowned upon by developed and devel
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identify cases - and these were num
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politics and political lobbying. Th
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This is followed by the presentatio
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emerging powers Brazil, Russia, Ind
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decades. More a collection of works
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exercised more frequently, where th
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The role of left-leaning political
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outcomes? Which instruments have th
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percent. 56 In South Africa, Blacks
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Brazil, because in engaging in this
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which domestic institutional arrang
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Chapter 2: Internationalism in the
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potentially providing indications o
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and most important, that these two
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According to Goldmann, internationa
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granted that states will always hav
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transformation in the anarchical in
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2.2.3 Post-Cold WarThe immediate af
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emains a rallying cry in contempora
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their stress on peaceful settlement
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epresentation; and peaceful mechani
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experienced international marginali
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colonial state. 136 The commitment
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dominant nations which may hope to
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domestic welfare arrangements and f
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foreign policy. The latter include
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adjust to shifts in their internati
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to seemingly altruistic or ‘ethic
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ethics may underpin the same foreig
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As noted by Taliaferro, however, ne
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Systemic Constraints :AnarchyRelati
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Neorealism’s emphasis on the syst
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the executive (i.e. Lead ministries
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individuals - located at the “int
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argument, and rational cost-benefit
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nature of interim or transitional g
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The neoclassical realist framework
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104
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practicable and analytically releva
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(CUT), the main trade union confede
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These incipient foreign policy prin
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each province, consisting of 10 del
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While this figure is small in globa
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mercantilist’, 238 or ‘revoluti
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The party’s commitment to the pro
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2. Strengthening of South-South Co-
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Some of South Africa’s accomplish
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slavery. Even Brazil’s participat
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that was seen to be experiencing a
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The Presidency makes foreign policy
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and socialisation practices, as wel
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members were negotiated. 296 Recent
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President Lula’s second and last
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4.2.3. International OutlookBrazil
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linguistic distinction from its Spa
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welfare measures. The party’s rel
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142
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missions and disaster relief. Yet,
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international orientation. Most of
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electoral system. The following sec
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identity changed as the challenges
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to the United States, with the atte
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eforms undertaken in the mid-1980s.
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ecognised as the ‘sole legitimate
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whole world. ANC solidarity was not
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1994, 370 placing tangible limits o
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The organisation’s main shortcomi
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Much of Mandela’s tenure as Presi
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with more wealthy donors in the Glo
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complicates the task of separating
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Thabo Mbeki was frequently lampoone
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the social-democratic Reconstructio
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At the helm of DFA were two individ
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policy. One, which is less signific
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Globally, the United States and its
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South Africa under Mbeki had decide
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his support for Mugabe against the
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Page 186 and 187: (FOCAC) Conference in November. The
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Page 192 and 193: international norms and regimes. 45
Page 194 and 195: of Brazil. In this discussion, Braz
Page 196 and 197: This period came to an end during t
Page 198 and 199: This dilemma - the choice between c
Page 200 and 201: on so-called ‘cultural diplomacy
Page 202 and 203: exchange rate movements and the cap
Page 204 and 205: and conflict resolution under the W
Page 206 and 207: Brazil’s military capabilities ar
Page 208 and 209: shifts in its approach to Brazil’
Page 210 and 211: een required of PT as a party of th
Page 212 and 213: A number of scholars are agreed tha
Page 214 and 215: leader…espousing a populist polit
Page 216 and 217: foreign policy document, it was the
Page 218 and 219: election campaign, a rarity for a f
Page 220 and 221: alumni, have been the subject of mu
Page 222 and 223: 6.5. Criticism from other political
Page 224 and 225: - the 2001 attacks on the United St
Page 226 and 227: Middle East, but they also appeared
Page 228 and 229: limitations on its capacities for w
Page 230 and 231: São Tomé and Principe, Ethiopia a
Page 232 and 233: emphasised the principle of non-int
Page 236 and 237: underscored by increased military s
Page 238 and 239: country enjoyed, and by the apparen
Page 240 and 241: Chapter 7: The New Internationalist
Page 242 and 243: from their repeatedly-stated commit
Page 244 and 245: On this occasion the force was able
Page 246 and 247: Instead, France and the US were mor
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Page 252 and 253: Aristide’s birthday, our people w
Page 254 and 255: 7.4. Brazil’s strategy on Haiti:
Page 256 and 257: taken by two branches of the armed
Page 258 and 259: esolutions). 664 A primary example
Page 260 and 261: However, Haiti was not merely a hum
Page 262 and 263: to share its experiences of securin
Page 264 and 265: giving near-automatic assent to the
Page 266 and 267: • Universalism, and• Internatio
Page 268 and 269: A prominent official discourse on t
Page 270 and 271: so this was an issue area that was
Page 272 and 273: Part III: Thematic Discussion and C
Page 274 and 275: Chapter 8: Neoclassical Realism, In
Page 276 and 277: policymaking elites of these states
Page 278 and 279: commitments have a substantial impa
Page 280 and 281: The resulting statement that the fi
Page 282 and 283: In South Africa, the intervening va
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liberation movement, has assumed mo
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South Africa expanded its engagemen
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more pragmatic, without losing sigh
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at the unit-level, where the state
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falls short of capturing the full g
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a political or material nature, in
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It is also plausible to expect that
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national capabilities and therewith
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300
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Appendix 1: Brazilian Presidents si
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1910: Formation of the Union of Sou
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2004: ANC wins landslide election v
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1960: Jânio Quadro is elected pres
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Renan Calheiros, speaker of the Sen
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31 May 2004: Jean-Bertrand Aristide
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SeptemberOctoberNovemberDecemberMap
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OctoberNovemberDecember11: South Af
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JuneJuly23: South Africa participat
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OctoberNovemberreadiness for South
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FebruaryMarchSouth Africa establish
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June 2006, legislative andmunicipal
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FebruaryKuwaiti deputy premier visi
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Appendix 6: Selected Brazilian Inte
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agreement proposed by theUSA to gra
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in Iran.2004JanuaryLula visits Indi
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Brazil is successful in its cottond
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Brazil opens Consulates-General in
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and MINUSTAH authorities.OctoberNov
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Maythe installation ofEMPBRAPA’s
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Honduras and Nicaragua withthe Inte
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NovemberLula requests Minister Amor
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AprilMayJuneJulyand the Palestinian
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REFERENCESList of InterviewsBrazilL
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______, Sally Morphet and Marco Ant
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______. 2004. “Aristide arrives i
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______, Jacqueline Anne. 2003. “C
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Connors, Michael E. Connors. 2005.
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contributors). 1986. How Foreign Po
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Glenn, John. 2009. “Realism versu
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Hirst, Monica. 2009. “South Ameri
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Jönsson, Christer. 2002. “Chapte
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Lipton, Merle. 2009. “Understandi
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______. 2004. “State of the Natio
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International Studies Convention, L
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Pfister, Roger. 2003. “Gateway to
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Samuels, David. 2004. “From Socia
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______. 2003. “Culture(s) of the
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UOL Notícias. 2009. “Celso Amori
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World Bank. 2009. Gross Domestic Pr
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