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on Participation in International Peace Missions”. 441 This document sought toclarify the terms of engagement of South African troops, police and civilians ininternational peace missions. Yet, within a decade, it was up for review, owing tothe rapid growth of South Africa’s continental peacekeeping responsibilities. 442 (SeeTable 2)Personnel1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008DRC1 113 161 164 1 455 1 430 1 230 1 242 1 248 1 248EritreaandEthiopia0 5 8 11 11 14 7 7 7 2Burundi0 0 701 750 1 500 1 437 1 267 1 202 751 1 000Liberia0 0 0 0 0 3 3 0 0 0Sudan0 0 0 0 0 10 339 620 626 604Total1 123 1 579 1 686 4 477 4 358 4 462 4 900 4 016 4 860Table 2 : South African participation in peacekeeping operations 443While South Africa’s continental activities, and broader multilateral actionproceeded apace, there was one issue on which the government was consistentlyunderstated in its public diplomacy: Zimbabwe. This culminated in Mbeki’s oftenquoted “Crisis? What Crisis?”, remark in relation to the withholding of electionresults by Zimbabwe’s Electoral Commission (ZEC) after the 2008 presidentialpoll. 444By 2005, however, serious disagreements between COSATU and the government inthe international arena were tabled in COSATU’s Review of 2004. These included441 Department of Foreign Affairs. 1999. White Paper on South African Participation inPeace Missions. Accessed online at:http://www.info.gov.za/whitepapers/1999/peacemissions.pdf on 10 May, 2011.442 Department of Defence. 2005. “White Paper update: South Africa’s participation ininternational peace missions”, Chief Directorate: Policy, Strategy and Planning.Accessed online at: http://www.cdpsp.mil.za/projects/2005/p2_peacemission.htm on 16May, 2011.443 GCIS. 2009. South Africa Yearbook 2008/9, p246.444 Sydney Morning Herald. 2008. “Crisis? What crisis, says Mbeki on the way tosummit”, April 13, 2008.184
COSATU’s disapproval of free trade agreements slated for conclusion with Indiaand China, as well as the policy of ‘quiet diplomacy’ with respect to Zimbabwe. Tocap a difficult year for Mbeki, he was forced to dismiss his deputy president, JacobZuma, following the guilty verdict in the trial of Zuma’s financial adviser, SchabirShaik. Zuma’s dismissal dealt a serious blow to Mbeki’s already questionablepopularity within the ANC’s traditional constituency, and marked the beginning of adownward spiral for Mbeki’s own political fortunes, and, some have argued, for theANC itself. In the press, and among religious groups, Mbeki was lauded for hisdecision on Zuma, however. 445In September 2005, some of the ANC’s more nefarious links to international crimeand corruption were exposed in a UN report on the Iraqi Oil-for-Food scandal. TheANC’s involvement in this issue, through a front company tasked with raisingmoney for the party, Imvume, shed new light on the party’s (and the South Africangovernment’s) position against the invasion of Iraq in 2003, as the UN inquiryclaimed that the Iraqi government had used its dealings with Imvume as a lever toinfluence South Africa’s foreign policy. 446 Indeed, the report shed light on thesignificance of the fact that, in April 2003, during the invasion of Iraq that hadcommenced in March, the ANC launched a vociferous popular campaign, titled‘Stop the War’, the first and only international issue it had seen fit to mobilise onsince the end of apartheid.By the end of 2006, Mbeki was in a stronger position on international affairs,however. South Africa strengthened its ties with two major non-Western powers,Russia and China. Mbeki hosted Vladimir Putin on a state visit, which addressed,among other issues, the sale of nuclear fuel and technology to South Africa. SouthAfrica had also managed to secure a deal with China, limiting the latter’s textileexports to South Africa, preceded by the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation445 Catholic News Service. 2005. “South African church leaders praise dismissal ofdeputy president”, June 15, 2005. Accessed online at:http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/0503534.htm on 23 February 2011;Forbes. 2005. “Mbeki fires corruption-tainted deputy president Zuma”, 14 June, 2005.Accessed at http://www.forbes.com/feeds/afx/2005/06/14/afx2092126.html on 23February 2011.446 The Economist Intelligence Unit, 2005. South Africa Country Report, December2005: 20. See also Independent Inquiry Committee, 2005. Report on the Manipulation ofthe Oil-for-Food Programme, 27 October 2005. Accessed online at: http://www.iicoffp.org/story27oct05.htmon 9 November 2010.185
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To my parents, Christopher and Vali
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSNothing that preced
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LIST OF SIGNIFICANT ACRONYMS AND AB
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PTRDPSACPSADCSPLMSWAPOUNCTADUNMIHUN
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Chapter 7 The New Internationalists
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Chapter 1: Introduction1.1. Context
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overwhelmingly, yet not completely,
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Hence, shifts in the international
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antipathy of the IR literature to a
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frowned upon by developed and devel
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identify cases - and these were num
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politics and political lobbying. Th
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This is followed by the presentatio
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emerging powers Brazil, Russia, Ind
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decades. More a collection of works
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exercised more frequently, where th
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The role of left-leaning political
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outcomes? Which instruments have th
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percent. 56 In South Africa, Blacks
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Brazil, because in engaging in this
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which domestic institutional arrang
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Chapter 2: Internationalism in the
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potentially providing indications o
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and most important, that these two
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According to Goldmann, internationa
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granted that states will always hav
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transformation in the anarchical in
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2.2.3 Post-Cold WarThe immediate af
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emains a rallying cry in contempora
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their stress on peaceful settlement
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epresentation; and peaceful mechani
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experienced international marginali
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colonial state. 136 The commitment
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dominant nations which may hope to
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domestic welfare arrangements and f
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foreign policy. The latter include
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adjust to shifts in their internati
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to seemingly altruistic or ‘ethic
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ethics may underpin the same foreig
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As noted by Taliaferro, however, ne
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Systemic Constraints :AnarchyRelati
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Neorealism’s emphasis on the syst
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the executive (i.e. Lead ministries
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individuals - located at the “int
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argument, and rational cost-benefit
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nature of interim or transitional g
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The neoclassical realist framework
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104
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practicable and analytically releva
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(CUT), the main trade union confede
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These incipient foreign policy prin
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each province, consisting of 10 del
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While this figure is small in globa
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mercantilist’, 238 or ‘revoluti
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The party’s commitment to the pro
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2. Strengthening of South-South Co-
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Some of South Africa’s accomplish
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slavery. Even Brazil’s participat
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that was seen to be experiencing a
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The Presidency makes foreign policy
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and socialisation practices, as wel
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members were negotiated. 296 Recent
Page 134 and 135: President Lula’s second and last
Page 136 and 137: 4.2.3. International OutlookBrazil
Page 138 and 139: linguistic distinction from its Spa
Page 140 and 141: welfare measures. The party’s rel
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Page 144 and 145: missions and disaster relief. Yet,
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Page 148 and 149: electoral system. The following sec
Page 150 and 151: identity changed as the challenges
Page 152 and 153: to the United States, with the atte
Page 154 and 155: eforms undertaken in the mid-1980s.
Page 156 and 157: ecognised as the ‘sole legitimate
Page 158 and 159: whole world. ANC solidarity was not
Page 160 and 161: 1994, 370 placing tangible limits o
Page 162 and 163: The organisation’s main shortcomi
Page 164 and 165: Much of Mandela’s tenure as Presi
Page 166 and 167: with more wealthy donors in the Glo
Page 168 and 169: complicates the task of separating
Page 170 and 171: Thabo Mbeki was frequently lampoone
Page 172 and 173: the social-democratic Reconstructio
Page 174 and 175: At the helm of DFA were two individ
Page 176 and 177: policy. One, which is less signific
Page 178 and 179: Globally, the United States and its
Page 180 and 181: South Africa under Mbeki had decide
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Page 186 and 187: (FOCAC) Conference in November. The
Page 188 and 189: Mbeki’s last full year in office,
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Page 192 and 193: international norms and regimes. 45
Page 194 and 195: of Brazil. In this discussion, Braz
Page 196 and 197: This period came to an end during t
Page 198 and 199: This dilemma - the choice between c
Page 200 and 201: on so-called ‘cultural diplomacy
Page 202 and 203: exchange rate movements and the cap
Page 204 and 205: and conflict resolution under the W
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Page 208 and 209: shifts in its approach to Brazil’
Page 210 and 211: een required of PT as a party of th
Page 212 and 213: A number of scholars are agreed tha
Page 214 and 215: leader…espousing a populist polit
Page 216 and 217: foreign policy document, it was the
Page 218 and 219: election campaign, a rarity for a f
Page 220 and 221: alumni, have been the subject of mu
Page 222 and 223: 6.5. Criticism from other political
Page 224 and 225: - the 2001 attacks on the United St
Page 226 and 227: Middle East, but they also appeared
Page 228 and 229: limitations on its capacities for w
Page 230 and 231: São Tomé and Principe, Ethiopia a
Page 232 and 233: emphasised the principle of non-int
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US$180 bn, compared to US$85 bn the
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underscored by increased military s
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country enjoyed, and by the apparen
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Chapter 7: The New Internationalist
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from their repeatedly-stated commit
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On this occasion the force was able
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Instead, France and the US were mor
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and groups in their efforts to prom
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to the leader of the Parliamentary
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Aristide’s birthday, our people w
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7.4. Brazil’s strategy on Haiti:
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taken by two branches of the armed
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esolutions). 664 A primary example
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However, Haiti was not merely a hum
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to share its experiences of securin
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giving near-automatic assent to the
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• Universalism, and• Internatio
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A prominent official discourse on t
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so this was an issue area that was
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Part III: Thematic Discussion and C
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Chapter 8: Neoclassical Realism, In
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policymaking elites of these states
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commitments have a substantial impa
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The resulting statement that the fi
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In South Africa, the intervening va
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liberation movement, has assumed mo
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South Africa expanded its engagemen
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more pragmatic, without losing sigh
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at the unit-level, where the state
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falls short of capturing the full g
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a political or material nature, in
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It is also plausible to expect that
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national capabilities and therewith
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300
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Appendix 1: Brazilian Presidents si
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1910: Formation of the Union of Sou
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2004: ANC wins landslide election v
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1960: Jânio Quadro is elected pres
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Renan Calheiros, speaker of the Sen
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31 May 2004: Jean-Bertrand Aristide
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SeptemberOctoberNovemberDecemberMap
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OctoberNovemberDecember11: South Af
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JuneJuly23: South Africa participat
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OctoberNovemberreadiness for South
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FebruaryMarchSouth Africa establish
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June 2006, legislative andmunicipal
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FebruaryKuwaiti deputy premier visi
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Appendix 6: Selected Brazilian Inte
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agreement proposed by theUSA to gra
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in Iran.2004JanuaryLula visits Indi
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Brazil is successful in its cottond
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Brazil opens Consulates-General in
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and MINUSTAH authorities.OctoberNov
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Maythe installation ofEMPBRAPA’s
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Honduras and Nicaragua withthe Inte
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NovemberLula requests Minister Amor
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AprilMayJuneJulyand the Palestinian
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REFERENCESList of InterviewsBrazilL
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______, Sally Morphet and Marco Ant
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______. 2004. “Aristide arrives i
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______, Jacqueline Anne. 2003. “C
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Connors, Michael E. Connors. 2005.
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contributors). 1986. How Foreign Po
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Glenn, John. 2009. “Realism versu
Page 362 and 363:
Hirst, Monica. 2009. “South Ameri
Page 364 and 365:
Jönsson, Christer. 2002. “Chapte
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Lipton, Merle. 2009. “Understandi
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______. 2004. “State of the Natio
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International Studies Convention, L
Page 372 and 373:
Pfister, Roger. 2003. “Gateway to
Page 374 and 375:
Samuels, David. 2004. “From Socia
Page 376 and 377:
______. 2003. “Culture(s) of the
Page 378 and 379:
UOL Notícias. 2009. “Celso Amori
Page 380:
World Bank. 2009. Gross Domestic Pr
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