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a political or material nature, in the context of African initiatives to resolve theconflict. In spite of President Zuma’s personal visit to Qaddafi in May 2011, SouthAfrica squandered a rare opportunity to channel the AU stance on Libya into theeventual UNSC position. Indeed, the text of Resolution 1973 makes scant referenceto the AU at all. The downside of Mbeki’s personalised diplomacy – in spite of thebroader vision it articulated for South Africa’s foreign policy – is thus its subjectivityto the changed political climate.As the chapter on South Africa has illustrated, the country’s foreign policy decisionmakersappear to be stuck in a quandary of both ideational and material capacitydimensions. This situation may be gradually changing with the presentation toParliament of a White Paper on South Africa’s Foreign Policy, “Building a BetterWorld: The Diplomacy of Ubuntu”, in May 2011, the fruit of a two decades-longprocess. 715 The South African state under the ANC has taken more decisive actionon issues that strengthened its political position domestically, and has refrainedfrom involvement on issues that might have threatened its dominance internally.Thus, South Africa’s leadership should be wary of over-cautious irrelevance. It wasrecently embraced by the BRIC formation of states, but many questions – aboutSouth Africa’s economic power, and its relative global presence - abound regardingthe reasoning behind this move.Moving forward from the research framework initiated in the current enquiry couldpose questions relating to bureaucratic and sectoral struggles over foreign policywithin the South African government. The mobilisation and extraction of resourcesfor foreign policy depend both on material capabilities and ideational resources.Greater attention could be paid to South Africa’s structural environment, and thetype of foreign policy behaviour it predicts. The presence of competitor-hegemonssuch as Nigeria, the potential impact of the ‘new’ Egypt, and the ever-increasingpresence of external powers such as China, India, Brazil and Turkey, provideadditional variables for the computation of South Africa’s external threat orvulnerability, all the while mediated by the perceptions of key decision-makers. As isthe case with Brazil, South Africa’s reticent regional hegemony and Africa-first715 Department of International Relations and Co-operation, White Paper on SouthAfrica’s Foreign Policy. 13 May, 2011. Accessed online at:http://www.info.gov.za/view/DownloadFileAction?id=148482 on 31 August, 2011.294
foreign policy, should not be allowed to obscure analysis of its broader, moreexpansive, foreign policy objectives.8.4. Future directions: BrazilThe uppermost echelon of Brazilian foreign policy leadership under Lula was singlemindedin its objective of raising Brazil’s international profile after the comparativepliancy of the Cardoso years. While ideational factors, stemming from theconfluence of the nationalistic Ministry of External Relations and the antiimperialistWorkers Party, certainly contributed to Brazil’s new activism, financialstability and incremental economic growth, along with the improvement ofdomestic consumption, helped to propel Brazil’s international ambition, and toprovide the country with the all-important resources to fulfil it.Brazil’s growth is nowhere near that of China or India, but under PT, Brazil may beexpected to continue to consolidate and expand its involvement in internationalquestions. This is particularly plausible given the increasing domestic popularsupport 716 for Brazil’s heightened status in international society. Under Brazil’s newpresident, Dilma Rousseff, the relationship between the military establishment andthe executive will become all the more important in the determination of Brazil’sinternational goals and indeed, Brazil’s international identity, which has hithertobeen crafted remarkably – for a state that experienced military rule for 20 years -free of militarism. The increasing dependence of the national government on themilitary for pacifying the Amazon, and defending Brazilian sovereignty there,reserves for the army a special place in Brazilian security discourse once more. Thisis underlined by the recommendations of the unprecedented Brazilian NationalStrategy of Defense of 2008, which included emphasising the indigenisation of Brazil’sarms supply; and, re-visiting the question of compulsory military service, amongother issues. 717716 The former Foreign Minister, Celso Amorim, cites a Pew Poll indicating that some 78percent of Brazilians supported the manner in which Brazil’s foreign policy has beenconducted in recent years. See Amorim, “Overview”, 239.717 Brazilian Ministry of Defense. 2008. National Strategy of Defense.295
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To my parents, Christopher and Vali
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSNothing that preced
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LIST OF SIGNIFICANT ACRONYMS AND AB
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PTRDPSACPSADCSPLMSWAPOUNCTADUNMIHUN
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Chapter 7 The New Internationalists
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Chapter 1: Introduction1.1. Context
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overwhelmingly, yet not completely,
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Hence, shifts in the international
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antipathy of the IR literature to a
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frowned upon by developed and devel
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identify cases - and these were num
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politics and political lobbying. Th
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This is followed by the presentatio
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emerging powers Brazil, Russia, Ind
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decades. More a collection of works
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exercised more frequently, where th
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The role of left-leaning political
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outcomes? Which instruments have th
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percent. 56 In South Africa, Blacks
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Brazil, because in engaging in this
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which domestic institutional arrang
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Chapter 2: Internationalism in the
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potentially providing indications o
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and most important, that these two
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According to Goldmann, internationa
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granted that states will always hav
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transformation in the anarchical in
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2.2.3 Post-Cold WarThe immediate af
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emains a rallying cry in contempora
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their stress on peaceful settlement
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epresentation; and peaceful mechani
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experienced international marginali
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colonial state. 136 The commitment
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dominant nations which may hope to
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domestic welfare arrangements and f
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foreign policy. The latter include
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adjust to shifts in their internati
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to seemingly altruistic or ‘ethic
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ethics may underpin the same foreig
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As noted by Taliaferro, however, ne
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Systemic Constraints :AnarchyRelati
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Neorealism’s emphasis on the syst
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the executive (i.e. Lead ministries
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individuals - located at the “int
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argument, and rational cost-benefit
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nature of interim or transitional g
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The neoclassical realist framework
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104
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practicable and analytically releva
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(CUT), the main trade union confede
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These incipient foreign policy prin
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each province, consisting of 10 del
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While this figure is small in globa
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mercantilist’, 238 or ‘revoluti
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The party’s commitment to the pro
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2. Strengthening of South-South Co-
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Some of South Africa’s accomplish
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slavery. Even Brazil’s participat
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that was seen to be experiencing a
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The Presidency makes foreign policy
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and socialisation practices, as wel
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members were negotiated. 296 Recent
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President Lula’s second and last
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4.2.3. International OutlookBrazil
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linguistic distinction from its Spa
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welfare measures. The party’s rel
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142
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missions and disaster relief. Yet,
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international orientation. Most of
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electoral system. The following sec
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identity changed as the challenges
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to the United States, with the atte
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eforms undertaken in the mid-1980s.
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ecognised as the ‘sole legitimate
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whole world. ANC solidarity was not
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1994, 370 placing tangible limits o
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The organisation’s main shortcomi
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Much of Mandela’s tenure as Presi
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with more wealthy donors in the Glo
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complicates the task of separating
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Thabo Mbeki was frequently lampoone
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the social-democratic Reconstructio
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At the helm of DFA were two individ
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policy. One, which is less signific
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Globally, the United States and its
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South Africa under Mbeki had decide
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his support for Mugabe against the
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on Participation in International P
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(FOCAC) Conference in November. The
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Mbeki’s last full year in office,
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190
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international norms and regimes. 45
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of Brazil. In this discussion, Braz
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This period came to an end during t
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This dilemma - the choice between c
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on so-called ‘cultural diplomacy
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exchange rate movements and the cap
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and conflict resolution under the W
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Brazil’s military capabilities ar
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shifts in its approach to Brazil’
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een required of PT as a party of th
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A number of scholars are agreed tha
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leader…espousing a populist polit
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foreign policy document, it was the
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election campaign, a rarity for a f
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alumni, have been the subject of mu
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6.5. Criticism from other political
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- the 2001 attacks on the United St
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Middle East, but they also appeared
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limitations on its capacities for w
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São Tomé and Principe, Ethiopia a
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emphasised the principle of non-int
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US$180 bn, compared to US$85 bn the
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underscored by increased military s
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country enjoyed, and by the apparen
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Chapter 7: The New Internationalist
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from their repeatedly-stated commit
Page 244 and 245: On this occasion the force was able
Page 246 and 247: Instead, France and the US were mor
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Page 252 and 253: Aristide’s birthday, our people w
Page 254 and 255: 7.4. Brazil’s strategy on Haiti:
Page 256 and 257: taken by two branches of the armed
Page 258 and 259: esolutions). 664 A primary example
Page 260 and 261: However, Haiti was not merely a hum
Page 262 and 263: to share its experiences of securin
Page 264 and 265: giving near-automatic assent to the
Page 266 and 267: • Universalism, and• Internatio
Page 268 and 269: A prominent official discourse on t
Page 270 and 271: so this was an issue area that was
Page 272 and 273: Part III: Thematic Discussion and C
Page 274 and 275: Chapter 8: Neoclassical Realism, In
Page 276 and 277: policymaking elites of these states
Page 278 and 279: commitments have a substantial impa
Page 280 and 281: The resulting statement that the fi
Page 282 and 283: In South Africa, the intervening va
Page 284 and 285: liberation movement, has assumed mo
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Page 288 and 289: more pragmatic, without losing sigh
Page 290 and 291: at the unit-level, where the state
Page 292 and 293: falls short of capturing the full g
Page 296 and 297: It is also plausible to expect that
Page 298 and 299: national capabilities and therewith
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Page 302 and 303: Appendix 1: Brazilian Presidents si
Page 304 and 305: 1910: Formation of the Union of Sou
Page 306 and 307: 2004: ANC wins landslide election v
Page 308 and 309: 1960: Jânio Quadro is elected pres
Page 310 and 311: Renan Calheiros, speaker of the Sen
Page 312 and 313: 31 May 2004: Jean-Bertrand Aristide
Page 314 and 315: SeptemberOctoberNovemberDecemberMap
Page 316 and 317: OctoberNovemberDecember11: South Af
Page 318 and 319: JuneJuly23: South Africa participat
Page 320 and 321: OctoberNovemberreadiness for South
Page 322 and 323: FebruaryMarchSouth Africa establish
Page 324 and 325: June 2006, legislative andmunicipal
Page 326 and 327: FebruaryKuwaiti deputy premier visi
Page 328 and 329: Appendix 6: Selected Brazilian Inte
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Page 332 and 333: in Iran.2004JanuaryLula visits Indi
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Page 340 and 341: Maythe installation ofEMPBRAPA’s
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NovemberLula requests Minister Amor
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AprilMayJuneJulyand the Palestinian
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REFERENCESList of InterviewsBrazilL
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______, Sally Morphet and Marco Ant
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______. 2004. “Aristide arrives i
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______, Jacqueline Anne. 2003. “C
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Connors, Michael E. Connors. 2005.
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contributors). 1986. How Foreign Po
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Glenn, John. 2009. “Realism versu
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Hirst, Monica. 2009. “South Ameri
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Jönsson, Christer. 2002. “Chapte
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Lipton, Merle. 2009. “Understandi
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______. 2004. “State of the Natio
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International Studies Convention, L
Page 372 and 373:
Pfister, Roger. 2003. “Gateway to
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Samuels, David. 2004. “From Socia
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______. 2003. “Culture(s) of the
Page 378 and 379:
UOL Notícias. 2009. “Celso Amori
Page 380:
World Bank. 2009. Gross Domestic Pr
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