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INTERNATIONALISM AS A PERSPECTIVE ON INTERNATIONALPOLITICSInward-lookingOutward-lookingParticularist (seeksto spread ownvalues)Universalist (seeksthe dispersal ofvalues deemeduniversal)Conflict-oriented: value-x isthe highest goodCoexistence-oriented:peace/security is the highestgoodRadical ! seeks substantialchangeModerate ! seeks gradual changeFigure 2: The Concept of InternationalismFinally, the coexistence-oriented form of internationalism may be radical, aimed atsubstantial transformation of the international system, potentially leading to theestablishment of a world government. More moderate aims seek gradual change ininternational life.Internationalism may assume coercive or accommodative forms. In itsaccommodative form it involves a commitment to the reduction of the likelihood ofinternational conflict through the operation of international rules, including bothlegal and non-legal norms. It is therefore involved in the creation of rules, theinstitutionalisation of non-legal rules; and, the enhancement of compliance withinternational rules. 87 The accommodative aspect of internationalism takes for87 Ibid., 28-38.58
granted that states will always have incompatible interests, by virtue of theirstructural environment and composition. In its coercive form, however,internationalism aims to reduce these incompatibilities. Internationalism in itscoercive form involves an attempt to replicate the techniques of small group socialcontrol in the international system of sovereign states. 88It may be difficult both to maintain peace and uphold the sanctity of internationallaw, however, as keeping the law may involve punitive measures. This is known asthe “Internationalists’ Dilemma”. 89 States from the former developing world haveparticularly come under fire in recent years for their apparent disregard of therequirements of the maintenance of international peace and security through theirinsistence on alternative means of conflict resolution. The traditional institutionalmeans of conflict resolution have in some instances been seen as corrupted by theinfluence of past and present imperial powers. Thus, certain initiatives, such asSouth Africa’s diversion of the Myanmar question from the UNSC during its 2007-8tenure as a non-permanent member, have invited heated criticism. An alternativeview may see this action as part of an internationalist project to strengthen themachinery of multilateralism, so as not to place overwhelming power in the handsof a UNSC widely perceived to be unrepresentative, and undemocratic. 90Thus, in answer to the question posed as the title of this section, ‘Which internationalism?’, largedeveloping countries, it is suggested, have sought to embody an internationalism in their foreignpolicies that is outward-looking, universalist, co-existence oriented, and moderate. This means thata duty for international action is recognised; action is predicated on the universal values of statehood(as opposed to humanity); peace and security represent higher values than the triumph of anyparticular value; and, change sought is moderate and gradual.In order to gauge the significance of internationalism as practised by the developingworld, it is instructive to trace the trajectory of internationalism in the twentiethcentury. This is the subject matter of the following section.88 Ibid., 45.89 Ibid., 50.90 It is recognised that enlarging the UNSC could also weaken it. See Thomas G. Weiss,“The Illusion of UN Security Council Reform”,The Washington Quarterly, 26, No.4(2003): 147-161.59
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To my parents, Christopher and Vali
Page 7 and 8: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSNothing that preced
Page 10 and 11: LIST OF SIGNIFICANT ACRONYMS AND AB
Page 12 and 13: PTRDPSACPSADCSPLMSWAPOUNCTADUNMIHUN
Page 14: Chapter 7 The New Internationalists
Page 18 and 19: Chapter 1: Introduction1.1. Context
Page 20 and 21: overwhelmingly, yet not completely,
Page 22 and 23: Hence, shifts in the international
Page 24 and 25: antipathy of the IR literature to a
Page 26 and 27: frowned upon by developed and devel
Page 28 and 29: identify cases - and these were num
Page 30 and 31: politics and political lobbying. Th
Page 32 and 33: This is followed by the presentatio
Page 34 and 35: emerging powers Brazil, Russia, Ind
Page 36 and 37: decades. More a collection of works
Page 38 and 39: exercised more frequently, where th
Page 40 and 41: The role of left-leaning political
Page 42 and 43: outcomes? Which instruments have th
Page 44 and 45: percent. 56 In South Africa, Blacks
Page 46 and 47: Brazil, because in engaging in this
Page 48 and 49: which domestic institutional arrang
Page 51 and 52: Chapter 2: Internationalism in the
Page 53 and 54: potentially providing indications o
Page 55 and 56: and most important, that these two
Page 57: According to Goldmann, internationa
Page 61 and 62: transformation in the anarchical in
Page 63 and 64: 2.2.3 Post-Cold WarThe immediate af
Page 65 and 66: emains a rallying cry in contempora
Page 67 and 68: their stress on peaceful settlement
Page 69 and 70: epresentation; and peaceful mechani
Page 71 and 72: experienced international marginali
Page 73 and 74: colonial state. 136 The commitment
Page 75 and 76: dominant nations which may hope to
Page 77: domestic welfare arrangements and f
Page 80 and 81: foreign policy. The latter include
Page 82 and 83: adjust to shifts in their internati
Page 84 and 85: to seemingly altruistic or ‘ethic
Page 86 and 87: ethics may underpin the same foreig
Page 88 and 89: As noted by Taliaferro, however, ne
Page 90 and 91: Systemic Constraints :AnarchyRelati
Page 92 and 93: Neorealism’s emphasis on the syst
Page 94 and 95: the executive (i.e. Lead ministries
Page 96 and 97: individuals - located at the “int
Page 98 and 99: argument, and rational cost-benefit
Page 100 and 101: nature of interim or transitional g
Page 102 and 103: The neoclassical realist framework
Page 104 and 105: 104
Page 106 and 107: practicable and analytically releva
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(CUT), the main trade union confede
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These incipient foreign policy prin
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each province, consisting of 10 del
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While this figure is small in globa
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mercantilist’, 238 or ‘revoluti
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The party’s commitment to the pro
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2. Strengthening of South-South Co-
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Some of South Africa’s accomplish
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slavery. Even Brazil’s participat
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that was seen to be experiencing a
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The Presidency makes foreign policy
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and socialisation practices, as wel
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members were negotiated. 296 Recent
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President Lula’s second and last
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4.2.3. International OutlookBrazil
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linguistic distinction from its Spa
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welfare measures. The party’s rel
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142
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missions and disaster relief. Yet,
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international orientation. Most of
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electoral system. The following sec
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identity changed as the challenges
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to the United States, with the atte
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eforms undertaken in the mid-1980s.
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ecognised as the ‘sole legitimate
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whole world. ANC solidarity was not
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1994, 370 placing tangible limits o
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The organisation’s main shortcomi
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Much of Mandela’s tenure as Presi
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with more wealthy donors in the Glo
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complicates the task of separating
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Thabo Mbeki was frequently lampoone
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the social-democratic Reconstructio
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At the helm of DFA were two individ
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policy. One, which is less signific
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Globally, the United States and its
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South Africa under Mbeki had decide
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his support for Mugabe against the
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on Participation in International P
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(FOCAC) Conference in November. The
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Mbeki’s last full year in office,
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190
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international norms and regimes. 45
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of Brazil. In this discussion, Braz
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This period came to an end during t
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This dilemma - the choice between c
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on so-called ‘cultural diplomacy
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exchange rate movements and the cap
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and conflict resolution under the W
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Brazil’s military capabilities ar
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shifts in its approach to Brazil’
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een required of PT as a party of th
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A number of scholars are agreed tha
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leader…espousing a populist polit
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foreign policy document, it was the
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election campaign, a rarity for a f
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alumni, have been the subject of mu
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6.5. Criticism from other political
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- the 2001 attacks on the United St
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Middle East, but they also appeared
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limitations on its capacities for w
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São Tomé and Principe, Ethiopia a
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emphasised the principle of non-int
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US$180 bn, compared to US$85 bn the
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underscored by increased military s
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country enjoyed, and by the apparen
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Chapter 7: The New Internationalist
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from their repeatedly-stated commit
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On this occasion the force was able
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Instead, France and the US were mor
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and groups in their efforts to prom
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to the leader of the Parliamentary
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Aristide’s birthday, our people w
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7.4. Brazil’s strategy on Haiti:
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taken by two branches of the armed
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esolutions). 664 A primary example
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However, Haiti was not merely a hum
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to share its experiences of securin
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giving near-automatic assent to the
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• Universalism, and• Internatio
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A prominent official discourse on t
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so this was an issue area that was
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Part III: Thematic Discussion and C
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Chapter 8: Neoclassical Realism, In
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policymaking elites of these states
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commitments have a substantial impa
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The resulting statement that the fi
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In South Africa, the intervening va
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liberation movement, has assumed mo
Page 286 and 287:
South Africa expanded its engagemen
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more pragmatic, without losing sigh
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at the unit-level, where the state
Page 292 and 293:
falls short of capturing the full g
Page 294 and 295:
a political or material nature, in
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It is also plausible to expect that
Page 298 and 299:
national capabilities and therewith
Page 300 and 301:
300
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Appendix 1: Brazilian Presidents si
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1910: Formation of the Union of Sou
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2004: ANC wins landslide election v
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1960: Jânio Quadro is elected pres
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Renan Calheiros, speaker of the Sen
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31 May 2004: Jean-Bertrand Aristide
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SeptemberOctoberNovemberDecemberMap
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OctoberNovemberDecember11: South Af
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JuneJuly23: South Africa participat
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OctoberNovemberreadiness for South
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FebruaryMarchSouth Africa establish
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June 2006, legislative andmunicipal
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FebruaryKuwaiti deputy premier visi
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Appendix 6: Selected Brazilian Inte
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agreement proposed by theUSA to gra
Page 332 and 333:
in Iran.2004JanuaryLula visits Indi
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Brazil is successful in its cottond
Page 336 and 337:
Brazil opens Consulates-General in
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and MINUSTAH authorities.OctoberNov
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Maythe installation ofEMPBRAPA’s
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Honduras and Nicaragua withthe Inte
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NovemberLula requests Minister Amor
Page 346 and 347:
AprilMayJuneJulyand the Palestinian
Page 348 and 349:
REFERENCESList of InterviewsBrazilL
Page 350 and 351:
______, Sally Morphet and Marco Ant
Page 352 and 353:
______. 2004. “Aristide arrives i
Page 354 and 355:
______, Jacqueline Anne. 2003. “C
Page 356 and 357:
Connors, Michael E. Connors. 2005.
Page 358 and 359:
contributors). 1986. How Foreign Po
Page 360 and 361:
Glenn, John. 2009. “Realism versu
Page 362 and 363:
Hirst, Monica. 2009. “South Ameri
Page 364 and 365:
Jönsson, Christer. 2002. “Chapte
Page 366 and 367:
Lipton, Merle. 2009. “Understandi
Page 368 and 369:
______. 2004. “State of the Natio
Page 370 and 371:
International Studies Convention, L
Page 372 and 373:
Pfister, Roger. 2003. “Gateway to
Page 374 and 375:
Samuels, David. 2004. “From Socia
Page 376 and 377:
______. 2003. “Culture(s) of the
Page 378 and 379:
UOL Notícias. 2009. “Celso Amori
Page 380:
World Bank. 2009. Gross Domestic Pr
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